
Copyright )J"- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



iht morg of the Jjations 



THE 



STORY OF NORWAY 



HJALMAR H. BOYESEN 

GEBHARD PROFESSOR OF GERMAN IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, AUTHOR OF "gOETHE & 
SCHILLER," " GUNNAR," " IDYLS OF NORWAY," ETC. 




NEW YORK & LONDON 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

®;ijc fvtticktrbothcr ^wss 
1886 



COPYRIGHT BY 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

1886 



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G. P. Putnam's Sons 

New York 



THE STORY OF THE NATIONS 



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THE STORY OF SPAIN. By E. E. and Susan Hale 
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THE STORY OF THE GOTHS, By Henry Bradley 
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TO 

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NORWAY AND SWEDEN IN NEW YORK, THIS HISTORY 

OF HIS NATIVE LAND IS DEDICATED BY HIS 

FRIEND THE AUTHOR 




PREFACE. 



It has been my ambition for many years to write 
a history of Norway, chiefly because no such book, 
worthy of the name, exists in the EngHsli language. 
When the pubHshers of the present series of ''The 
Stories of the Nations" proposed to me to write the 
"story" of my native land, I therefore eagerly ac- 
cepted their offer. The " story," however, according 
to their plan, was to differ in some important re- 
spects from a regular history. It was to dwell par- 
ticularly upon the dramatic phases of historical 
events, and concern itself but slightly with the 
growth of institutions and sociological phenomena. 
It therefore necessarily takes small account of pro- 
portion. In the present volume more space is 
given to the national hero, Olaf Tryggvesson, whose 
brief reign was crowded with dramatic events, than 
to kings who reigned ten times as long. For 
the same reason the four centuries of the Union 
with Denmark are treated with comparative brevity. 
Many thing happened, no doubt, during those cen- 
turies, but "there were few deeds." Moreover, the 
separate history of Norway, in the time of her degra- 
dation, has never proved an attractive theme to 



VI THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Norse historians, for which reason the period has 
been generally neglected. 

The principal sources of which I have availed my- 
self in the preparation of the present volume, are 
Snorre Sturlasson : Norges Kongesagaer (Christiania, 
1859, 2 vols.) ; P. A. Munch : Dot Norske Folks His- 
toric {C\\rht\dimd.j 1852, 6 vols.); R. Keysef: Eftcr- 
ladte Skrifter (Christiania, 1866, 2 vols.); Sainlcde 
Afhandlinger (1868); J. E. Sars : Udsigt over den 
Norske Historic (Christiania, 1877, 2 vols.); K. 
Maurer: Die BekeJiriing des NorwegiscJien Stammes 
sum Christ ent/mme (Miinchen, 1856, 2 vols.), and Die 
Eiitstehung des Isldndischen Staates (Miinchen, 1852) ; 
G. Vigfusson : Sturlunga vS<^^<^ (Oxford, 1878, 2 vols.); 
and Um timatal i Islcndinga soguin i fornold (con- 
tained in Safn til sogic Islands^ 1855); G. Storm: 
Snorre Stnrlasson s Historieskrivning (Kjobenhavn, 
1 878) ; C. F. Allen : Haandbog i Fcedrelandets Historic 
(Kjobenhavn, 1863) ; besides a large number of scat- 
tered articles in German and Scandinavian historical 
magazines. A question which has presented many 
difficulties is the spelling of proper names. To adopt 
in every instance the ancient Icelandic form would 
scarcely be practicable, because the names in their 
modernized forms are usually familiar and easy to 
pronounce, while, in their Icelandic disguises, they 
are to English readers nearly unpronouncable, and 
present a needlessly forbidding appearance. Where 
a name has no well-recognized English equivalent, I 
have therefore adopted the modern Norwegian form, 
which usually differs from the ancient, in having 
dropped a final letter. Thus Sigurdr (which with an 



PREFACE, Vll 

English genitive would be Sigurdr's) becomes in 
modern Norwegian Sigurd, Eirikr, Erik, etc. Those 
surnames, which are descriptive epithets, I have 
translated where they are easily translatable, thus 
writing Harold the Fairhaired, Haakon the Good, 
Olaf the Saint, etc. Absolute consistency would, 
however, give to some names a too cumbrous look, 
as, for instance, Einar the Twanger of Thamb 
(Thamb being the name of his bow), and I have 
in such instances kept the Norse name (Thambars- 
kelver). 

It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge my indebted- 
ness for valuable criticism to my friends, E. Munroe 
Smith, J.U.D., Adjunct Professor of History in 
Columbia College, and Hon. Rasmus B. Andersen, 
United States Minister to Denmark, without whose 
kindly aid in procuring books, maps, etc., the diffi- 
culties in the preparation of the present volume 
would have been much increased. I am also under 
obligation to Dr. W. H. Carpenter, of Columbia 
College, and to the Norwegian artist, Mr. H. N. 
Gausta, of La Crosse, Wis., who has kindly sent me 
two spirited original compositions, illustrative of 
peasant-life in Norway. 

HjALMAR H. BOYESEN. 
Columbia College, 

New York, April 15, 1886. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Who Were the Norsemen ? . . . . 1-12 

The Aryan migrations, 1-3 — The physical characteristics of 
Norway, 4, 5 — Early tribal organization and means of live- 
lihood, 6-10 — Sense of independence and aptitude for self- 
government, 10-12. 

II. 

The Religion of the Norsemen . . . 13-24 

Theories regarding the origin of the Scandinavian gods, 13— 
16 — The Eddaic account of the creation of the world and of 
man, 16-18 — The world-tree Ygdrasil, 18 — The Aesir, their 
functions and their dwellings, 19-23 — Loke the Evil-Doer 
and his terrible children, 23, 24. 

III. 

e of the Vikings. — Origin of the Vi- 
king Cruises 25-44 

The Norsemen launch forth upon the arena of history, 25 — 
The origin of the viking cruises, 25-27 — Kingship among 
the Scandinavian tribes, 27, 28 — The three periods of the 
viking age, 28-30 — The contribution of the vikings to the 
political life of Europe, 30, 31 — Sigfrid of Nortmannia, 31 — 
Godfrey the Hunter, 31, 32 — Charlemagne's prophecy in 
regard to the vikings, 32-34 — Hasting's stratagem, 34-36 — 
Ragnar, Asgeir, and Rorek, 36, 37 — Thorgisl in Ireland, 
38, 39 — Olaf the White, 40, 41 — The vikings in England, 
41 — Simeon of Durham's account of the vikings, 42 — The, 
character of the vikings at home and abroad, 43, 44. 
ix 




X CONTENTS. 

IV. 
Halfdan the Swarthy .... 45-51 

The descent of the Yngling race, 45 — The sacrifices of Aun 
the Old, 45 — Olaf the Wood-cutter, Halfdan Whiteleg, and 
Godfrey the Hunter, 46 — Birth of Halfdan the Swarthy, 46 
Sigurd Hjort and the Berserk Hake, 47, 48 — Halfdan the 
Swarthy weds Ragnhild, 48 — Ragnhild's dream, 48 — King 
Halfdan's dream, 49 — Birth of Harold the Fairhaired, 49 — 
The Finn's trick, 50 — King Halfdan's death, 51. 

V. 
Harold the Fairhaired .... 52-73 

Harold the Fairhaired woos Gyda, 52, 53 — Harold's vow, 
53 — Herlaug and Rollaug, 54 — Harold's policy toward the 
conquered kings, 54, 55 — The feudal state, 55 — Taxation 
and the peasants' loss of allodial rights, 55, 56 — Haakon 
Grjotgardsson and Ragnvald, Earl of More, 56 — Kveld-Ulf 
and his sons, 56, 57 — Erik Eimundsson's invasion of Nor- 
■^^.y, 57 — His meeting with King Harold, 58 — The battle of 
Hafrs-Fjord, 59 — Earl Ragnvald cuts King Harold's hair, 
59 — Harold marries Gyda, 59, 60 — Harold's treachery to 
Thorolf Kveld-Ulf's son, 60-62 — Kveld-Ulf's vengeance 
and migration to Iceland, 62, 63 — Duke Rollo in Norway 
and France, 64, 65 — Emigration of discontented magnates, 
65, 66— Snefrid, 67— Queen Ragnhild, 68— Erik Blood- 
Axe's feuds with his brothers, 69-71 — Guttorm Sindre, 71, 
72 — Birth of Haakon the Good, 72 — Haakon is sent to 
Ethelstan, 72, 73 — Death of Harold, 73. 

VI. 
Erik Blood-Axe 74-86 

Erik's meeting with Gunhild, 74-76 — Erik kills his brothers, 
Sigfrid and Olaf, 76 — Thorolf, Bald Grim's son, 77 — Egil, 
Bald Grim's son, kills Baard, 78 — Egil kills Berg-Anund, 
79, 80 — Egil's pole of dishonor, 80 — Egil ransoms his head 
by a song, 81-85 — Erik is exiled, 86. 

VII. 

Haakon the Good 87-101 

Character of Haakon, 87 — Proclaimed king of Norway, 88 — • 



CONTENTS. XI 

Legislative reforms and restoration of allodium, 89 — Signal 
fires, 90 — First attempt to introduce Christianity, 90-92 — 
Speech of Asbjorn of Medalhus, 92 — The king eats horse- 
flesh, 92-94 — The sons of Erik Blood-Axe make war upon 
Norway, 94, 95 — Battles of Sotoness and Agvaldsness, 95, 
96 — Egil Woolsark, 96, 97 — Battle of Fraedo, 96-98 — 
Failure of attempt to Christianize the country, 98 — Battle 
of Fitje (Eyvind Scald-Spoiler), 98-101 — Death of Haakon 
the Good, lOi. 

VIII. 
Harold Greyfell and his Brothers . . 102-114 

Unpopularity of the sons of Erik, 102-104 — Their charac- 
ters, 104 — Harold Greyfell and Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, 105 — 
Treachery of Harold toward Earl Sigurd, 105, 106 — Inde- 
pendence of Earl Haakon, 106, 107 — Murder of Tryggve 
Olafsson, 107, 108 — Birth of Olaf Tryggvesson, 108 — Ad- 
ventures of Aastrid and Thoralf Lousy-Beard, 108-110 — 
Sigurd Sleva insults Aaluf, in — Earl Haakon's intrigues in 
Denmark, in, 112 — Gold-Harold slays Harold Greyfell, 
112 — Expulsion of the sons of Erik, 113, T14. 

IX. 

Earl Haakon ii5~i33 

Earl Haakon defends Dannevirke, 115, 116 — Harold Blue- 
tooth, 117 — Haakon's devastations in Sweden and in Viken, 
118 — Earl Erik and Tiding-Skofte, 119 — The funeral feast 
of the Jomsvikings, 120, 121 — Battle in HjSrungavaag, 
121-125 — The Jomsvikings on the log, 125, 126 — Haavard 
the Hewer, 127 — The power and popularity of Earl Haakon, 
127, 128 — Gudrun Lundarsol, 129 — Revolt of the peasants, 
130 — The earl hides under a pigsty, 130, 131 — " Why art 
thou so pale, Kark ? " 131 — Kark murders the earl, 132 — 
Haakon's character, 132, 133. 

X. 

The Youth of Olaf Tryggvesson . . 134-142 

Aastrid's flight to Russia, 134, 135 — Olaf is sold for a ram, 
135 — He is taken to Vladimir's court, 135, 136 — King 



XI t coy TENTS. 

Burislav and Geira, 136, 137 — The wooers' market in Eng- 
land, 137 — Marriage with Gyda, 137, 138 — Olaf's warfare in 
England, 138, 139 — There Klakka tries to entrap Olaf, 139, 
140 — Return to Norway and proclamation as king, 140-142. 

XI. 
Olaf Tryggvesson 143-172 

Olaf Christianizes Viken, 143, 144 — Character of old Ger- 
manic Christianity, 144-146 — Thangbrand the pugnacious 
priest, 147 — The chiefs of Haalogaland, 148 — Ironbeard 
and the peasants of Trondelag, 149, 150 — The Yule-tide 
feast at More, 150-152 — Olaf woos Sigrid the Haughty, 
152-154— He marries Thyra, 154 — Thore Hjort, Eyvind 
Kinriva, and Haarek of Thjotta, 154-158 — Thangbrand 
in Iceland, 158, 159 — Olaf's character, 160 — Thyra's tears 
for her lost possessions, 161 — "The Long-Serpent," 161 — 
King Olaf sails to Wendland, 162, 163 — Earl Sigvalde's 
treachery, 163 — Battle of Svolder, 164-172 — King Olaf's 
death, 171, 172. 

XII. 

The Earls Erik and Sweyn. — The Discovery 

OF ViNLAND 173-181 

Division of Norway between the victors at Svolder, 173 — 
Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, 174-176 — Earl Erik's character, 
176 — And attitude toward Christianity, 176, 177 — Revival 
of the viking spirit, 177 — Earl Erik abdicates in favor of his 
brother and son, 178, 179 — Bjarne Herjulfsson's glimpse of 
America, 179 — Leif Eriksson's expedition to Vinland, 180, 
181 — Thorfinn Karlsevne and Gudrid, 181. 

XIII. 

Olaf the Saint 182-224 

Birth and childhood of Olaf the Saint, 182, 183— Viking 
cruises, 183 — Return to Norway, 184 — He captures Earl 
Haakon, 185 — His reception by Aastrid and Sigurd Syr, 
186, 187 — Family council, 187, 188 — Support of the shire- 
kings, 188 — The Tronders recognize Olaf as king, 189 — 
Surprised by Earl Sweyn in Nidaros, igo — Battle of Nessje, 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

igo, ig2 — Earl Sweyn's flight and death, 192 — Quarrel with 
King Olaf the Swede, 193, 194 — Bjorn Stallare's mission, 
194-196 — Speech of Thorgny the Lawman, 196, 197 — Olaf 
marries Aastrid, 198 — Conspiracy of the shire-kings and 
their punishments, 199 — The play of the sons of Sigurd Syr, 
199, 200 — Rorek's hard fate, 201 — His attempt to murder 
Olaf, 202 — The attitude of the tribal aristocracy toward 
Olaf, 202, 203 — Paganism versus Christianity, 204, 205 — 
"Where are my ancestors ?" 205 — Olaf's character and ap- 
pearance, 205-207 — Dale-Guldbrand, 207-210 — Slaying of 
Aasbjorn Sigurdsson, 211 — Knut the Mighty bribes the 
Norse chieftains, 212, 213 — Anund Jacob refuses the bribe, 
213, 214 — Battle of Helge-aa, 214, 215 — Death of Erling 
Skjalgsson, 216 — Olaf goes to Russia, 217 — Bjorn Stallare's 
confession, 218 — Olaf returns to Norway, 218 — His vision, 
220, 221 — Battle of Sticklestad, 221, 222 — Thormod Kol- 
bruna-Scald, 222-224 — Burial of St. Olaf, 224. 



XIV. 

SWEYN AlFIFASSON 225-229 

Alfifa and the Norse chiefs, 225 — Unpopular and oppres- 
sive laws, 226 — King Olaf canonized, 227 — Tryggve Olafs- 
son's defeat, 228 — Einar Thambarskelver rebukes Alfifa, 228 
— Magnus Olafsson returns from Russia, 229 — Expulsion of 
Sweyn, 229. 

XV. 
Magnus THE Good 230-250 

Circumstances of Magnus' birth, 230 — Magnus and Hartha- 
knut, 231 — Jealousies of the chieftains, 232 — Magnus and 
Kalf Arnesson at Stiklestad, 233 — Sighvat Scald's Lay of 
Candor, 234 — Sweyn Estridsson rebels, 236, 237 — Battle of 
Lyrskog's Heath, 237 — Thorstein Side-Hall's son, 238 — 
Einar Thambarskelver's disagreement and reconciliation 
with Magnus, 238, 239 — Arrival of Harold Sigurdsson, 240 
— His adventures abroad, 240—242 — Magnus' reception of 
Harold, 243 — Harold's alliance with Sweyn Estridsson, 244 
— Agreement to share the government, 245 — The peasant 



XIV CONTENTS. 

Toke's speech, 246, 247 — Expeditions of Magnus against 
Sweyn Estridsson, 247, 247 — Death of Magnus the Good, 
249, 250. 

XVI. 

Harold Hard-Ruler 251-272 

The tribal chieftains and the hereditability of the crown, 
251, 252 — Harold decides to conquer Denmark, 252 — De- 
termination to break the power of the aristocracy, 253 — 
Einar Thambarskelver's hostility, 254, 255 — Harold marries 
Thora, 255 — St. Hallvard and the founding of Oslo, 256 — 
Burning of Heidaby, 257 — Sweyn's pursuits and Harold's 
stratagems, 257-259 — Battle of Nis-aa, 259 — Peace of 
Gotha Ely, 260 — Feuds with Einar Thambarskelver, 260, 
261 — Harold tests the loyalty of the chieftains, 261, 262 — 
Hogne Langbjornsson, 262, 263 — Murder of Einar and his 
son, 264 — Harold's treachery to Kalf Arnesson and Haakon 
Ivarsson, 265-267 — Arrival of Earl Tostig in Norway, 268 
— Battles of Fulford and Stamford Bridge, 268-270 — Styr- 
kaar and the yeoman, 270-272 — Position of the Norwegian 
Church, 272. 

XVII. 

Olaf the Quiet and Magnus Haroldsson, 273-284 

Olaf and Magnus divide the country, 273 — War with Sweyn 
Estridsson, 273, 274 — Death of Magnus, 274 — Character of 
Olaf the Quiet, 275, 276 — Gradual cessation of viking 
cruises, 276, 277 — Gradual abolition of serfdom, 278 — 
Vikings and merchants, 278, 279 — Appearance and appoint- 
ments of dwellings, 280, 281 — Increased splendor of the 
court, 281, 282 — Establishment of guilds, 282, 283 — Skule 
Tostigsson, 283 — Death of Olaf the Quiet, 284. 

XVIII. 
Magnus Barefoot and Haakon Magnusson, 285-290 

The Tronders proclaim Haakon king, 285 — Magnus' ex- 
pedition to Scotland and Ireland, 285, 286 — Death of 
Plaakon, 286 — Punishment of his partisans, 286, 287 — War- 
like spirit of Magnus, 287 — War with Sweden, 288 — War 
with Ireland, 289 — Death of Magnus in Ulster, 290. 



CONTENTS. XV 

XIX. 
Eystein Sigurd the Crusader and Olaf 

Magnusson 291-305 

Division of the land, 291 — Sigurd's crusade, 292, 293 — 
Eystein's meritorious activity at home, 294 — Hostility of the 
brothers, 295 — The case of Sigurd Ranesson, 295, 296 — 
Borghild of Dal, 297 — The "man-measuring," 297-301 — 
Death of Eystein, 301 — Ottar Birting, 301-303 — Arrival of 
Harold Gille, 303 — Cecilia, 303 — Death of Sigurd, 304, 305. 

XX. 
Magnus the Blind and Harold Gille . 306-310 

Character of Magnus and of Harold, 306 — Battle of Fyri- 
leiv, 307 — Magnus captured and maimed, 307, 308 — Sigurd 
Slembedegn, 308 — Harold Gille murdered, 309 — Burning of 
Konghelle by the Wends, 310. 

XXI. 
The Sons of Harold Gille .... 31 1-32 1 

The sons of Harold Gille proclaimed kings, 311 — Sigurd 
Slembedegn allies himself with Magnus the Blind, 311, 312 
— Inge Crookback's first experience of v^^ar, 312 — Battles of 
Krokaskogen, 312, and Holmengraa, 313 — Sigurd Slembe- 
degn's fortitude, 313 — Arrival of Eystein Haroldsson, 314 — 
Feuds between the brothers, 314-316 — Character and ap- 
pearance of Sigurd Mouth, 314-316 — Death of Sigurd, 316 
— Death of Eystein, 317 — Erling Skakke and Gregorius 
Dagsson, 318-320 — Fall of Inge at Oslo, 320 — The cardi- 
nal's visit, 320, 321. 

XXII. 

Haakon the Broad-Shouldered . . 322-325 

Christina bribes the priest, 322 — Erling Skakke's intrigues, 
323 — Seeks aid in Denmark, 323, 324 — Battle of Sekken, 

324. 

XXIII. 

Magnus Erlingsson 326-349 

Rebellion of the "Sigurd party," 326, 327 — Battle of Ree, 
327 — Erling's alliance with Archbishop Eystein, 327 — Mag- 



XVI CONTENTS. 

nus takes the land in fief from St. Olaf, 327, 328 — Magnus 
crowned, 328 — King Valdemar's expedition to Norway, 328, 
329 — The rebellion of the Hood-Swains, 329 — Battle of 
Djursaa, 330 — Erling accepts an earldom from Valdemar, 
330 — Kills his stepson Harold, 332 — Eystein Meyla and the 
Birchlegs, 333, 334 — Childhood and youth of Sverre Sig- 
urdsson, 334-337 — Sverre becomes the chief of the Birch- 
legs, 337 — Vicissitudes and adventures of the Birchlegs, 
337-341 — Battle of Kalvskindet, 341-343 — Death of Erling 
Skakke, 343 — Social revolution inaugurated by Sverre, 343— 
345 — Battle at Nordness, 346 — Warfare between Birchlegs 
and Heklungs, 346-348 — Battle of Norefjord and death of 
Magnus, 348, 349. 

XXIV. 
Sverre Sigurdsson 350-37S 

A dangerous precedent, 350 — Erik Kingsson, 351 — The 
lawmen and prefects, 351, 352 — The new democracy, 352, 
353 — Rebellion of the Kuvlungs, 353, 354 ; the Varbelgs, 
354 ; and the Oyeskeggs, 354-357 — Sverre's controversy 
with the Church, 357, 358 — Nicholas Arnesson, 358 — 
Sverre is put in the ban, 359 — Origin of the Bagler party, 
360, 361 — Nicholas shows the white feather, 361 — Treason 
of Thorstein Kugad, 362 — The Baglers besiege the block- 
house in Bergen, 362-365 — Burning of Bergen, 365 — The 
traitor's return, 366 — The Papal bull and Sverre's defence, 
366-368 — The Bagler's defeated at Strindso, 369 — The 
great peasant rebellion, 370-373 — Sverre's magnanimity, 
374 — Aristocracy versus Democracy, 374, 375 — Siege and 
surrender of Tunsberg, 375, 376 — Death of Sverre, 376, 377 
— His character, 377, 378. 

XXV. 
Haakon Sverresson . . . , . 379-384 

Peace with the Church, 379 — Popularity of Haakon, 380 — 
Discontent of the queen-dowager, 381 — Abduction of Prin- 
cess Christina, 381, 382 — The fatal Yule-tide feast, 382, 
383 — Death of. Haakon by poison, 383 — Flight of Queen 
Margaret, 384. 



CONTENTS. XVll 

XXVI. 
GUTTORM SiGURDSSON AND InGE BaARDSSON, 385-399 
The Bagler troop reorganized under Erling Stonewall, 385 
— Successful ordeal, 386 — Death of Guttorm Sigurdsson by 
poison, 387 — Inge Baardsson proclaimed king, 388 — Society 
disorganized by the civil wars, 388, 389 — Unbidden guests 
at the bridal feast, 389, 390 — Philip Simonsson made king 
of the Baglers, 390 — Birth and childhood of Haakon 
Haakonsson, 391, 392 — Compromise of Hvitingso, 393 — 
The intrigues of Haakon Galen, 394, 395 — Helge Ilvasse 
and the boy Haakon, 396, 397 — Discontent of the Birchlegs, 
398 — Death of King Inge, 399. 

XXVII. 
Haakon Haakonsson the Old . . . 400-432 

Haakon proclaimed king, 400 — Rebellion of the Slittungs, 
401 — Effects of the civil war, 401, 402— The intrigues of 
Earl Skule, 402-404 — Inga of Varteig carries glowing irons, 
404-406 — Rebellion of the Ribbungs, 407, 40S — Skule's 
double-dealing, 408-410 — Assembly of notables in Bergen, 
410 — Bishop Nicholas' hypocrisy, 411 — Sigurd Ribbung re- 
news the rebellion, 412 — Haakon's campaign in Vermeland, 
412, 413 — Duke Skule's leaky ships, 413 — Death of Bishop 
Nicholas and Sigurd Ribbung, 414 — Squire Knut as the 
chief of the Ribbungs, 416 — Skule's "Crusade," 416, 417 — 
Skule allies himself with Valdemar the Victorious, 417, 418 
— Skule called to account, 418-420 — Intrigues at the Roman 
Curia, 420, 421 — The plot revealed, 421, 422 — Skule pro- 
claims himself king, 423 — Battle of Laaka, 424 — Skule de- 
feated at Oslo, 425 — Death of Skule, 426, 427 — Coronation 
of Haakon, 427-429 — His power and fame at home and 
abroad, 429—431 — Expedition to Scotland, and death, 431, 
432. 

XXVIII. 

The Sturlungs in Iceland .... 433-441 

Snorre Sturlasson's Heimskringla, 433, 434 — Snorre's paren- 
tage and youth, 434 — Character of Snorre, 434 — Reykjaholt, 
436 — Brother feuds, 436 — Snorre's visit to Norway, 437 — 



XVin CONTENTS. 

Plots and counterplots, 437-440 — Snorre's death, 440 — 
Sturla Thordsson, 440, 441. 

XXIX. 
Magnus Law-Mender 442-450 

Cession of Man and the Shetland Isles to Scotland, 442 — 
Reasons for and against the cession, 443 — Condition of Ice- 
landic society and submission of the island to Norway, 444 
— Magnus as a law-giver, 445-447 — The tribal aristocracy 
and the court nobility, 447, 448 — Concessions to the Church, 
448, 449 — Degeneracy of the old royal house, 450 — Death 
of Magnus, 450. 

XXX. 

Erik Priest-Hater 451-456 

The barons increase their power, 451 — Quarrels with the 
clergy, 452— The false " Maid of Norway," 453 — Depreda- 
tions of " Little Sir Alf," 453, 454 — War with Denmark and 
the Hansa, 454, 455— Capture and death of Little Sir Alf, 
456 — Death of King Erik, 456. 

XXXI. 

Haakon Longlegs 457-460 

Sir Audun's treason, 457 — The dukes Erik and Valdemar 
458 — Complications with Sweden, 459 — War with Denmark, 
460 — Death of Haakon, 460. 

XXXII. 

Magnus Smek, Haakon Magnusson, and Olaf 

THE Young 461-466 

Magnus Smek becomes king of Norway and Sweden, 461 — 
Duchess Ingeborg's unpopularity, 461, 462— Discontent with 
Magnus, 462 — Alliance with Valdemar Atterdag, 462, 463 — 
Magnus deposed in Sweden, 463 — Haakon's war with Al- 
brecht of Mecklenberg, 464 — The power of the Hansa in 
Norway, 464 — Death of Magnus, 465 — The Black Death, 
465, 466 — Olaf the Young, 466. 



CONTENTS. XIX 

XXXIII. 
Norway during the Kalmar Union . . 467-474 

Margaret unites the three kingdoms, 467-469 — The Kalmar 
Union, 469, 470 — Reasons for its disastrovxs consequences, 
470-472 — Death of Margaret, 472 — Erik of Pomerania's 
misrule and extortions, 472, 473 — Christopher of Bg,varia, 

473, 474. 

XXXIV. 

The Union with Denmark .... 475-488 

The condition of Norway and Denmark during the union 
compared, 475, 476 — Charles Knuttson elected king of Swe- 
den, 478 — Christian I.'s war with Charles Knutsson, 479, 
480 — Misrule in Norway, 480 — The Scottish Isles pawned, 
480, 481 — King Hans, 481, 482 — Christian II. 's accession, 
482 — His attempt to humble the nobility, 483 — The carnage 
of Stockholm, 483, 484 — His vain appeal to the bourgeoisie, 
484, 4S5 — Chiistian's flight, 485 — Frederick I., 485, 486 — 
Struggle about the succession, 486, 487 — Christian III., 487, 
488 — Norway becomes a province of Denmark, 488. 

XXXV. 

Norway as a Province of Denmark . . 489-515 

The Reformation introduced, 489, 490 — The power of the 
Hansa broken. 490-492 — Frederick II., 492-494 — Christian 
IV. 's interest in Norway, 494 — The Kalmar War, 495 — . 
Participation in the Thirty Years' War, 495, 496 — The 
Hannibal's feud, 496 — Frederick III.'s disastrous war with 
Sweden, 498 — Absolutism introduced, 499, 500 — Christian 
v., 500, 501 — Frederick IV. 's accession, 501 — The Great 
Northern War, 502-504 — Tordenskjold, 503, 504 — Christian 
VI., 506-508— Frederick V., 5o8~Christian VII., 508-512 
— The armed neutrality, 509, 510 — Frederick VI. mounts 
the throne, 512 — War with Sweden, 512, 513 — Christian 
August as viceroy, 512-514 — The Treaty of Paris, 513 — Pro- 
test of the Norsemen, 514 — Separation from Denmark, 515. 

XXXVI. 
Norway Recovers Her Independence . 516-538 

Christian Frederick as viceroy. 516-518— Constitutional con- 



XX CONTENTS. 

vention at Eidsvold, 518-520 — War with Sweden, 520, 521 
— Armistice at Moss, 521 — Charles XIII. accepts the consti- 
tution, 522 — Charles XIV. John becomes king of Nor- 
way, 522 — His controversies with the Storthing, 522-526 — 
Henrik Wergeland, 526, 527 — Count Wedel-Jarlsberg as 
viceroy, 527 — Oscar I., 528-530 — The character of the 
Norse 'peasantry, 528-530 — Charles XV., 530, 531 — Oscar 
II., and the constitutional struggle, 531-534 — Impeachment 
of the ministry Selmer, 534 — "The Pure Flag," 535 — Pres- 
ent condition of Norway and her place among the nations, 
536 — Literature and science, 536-538. 



I 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



STONE AXES FROM THE LATER STONE AGE 
STONE USED FOR SHAPING INSTRUMENTS 

STONE HAMMER 

STONE KNIFE 

ADZE OF ELK-HORN .... 

STONE WEDGE . . 

ROCK PICTURE OF A SHIP AT LOKEBERG . 

ROCK PICTURE AT BORGEN 

BRONZE SWORD .... 

LOOR OR WAR HORN OF BRONZE 

BRONZE SWORD 

BUCKLES FROM THE EARLY IRON AGE . 

THE VIKING SHIP RECENTLY UNEARTHED 

SANDEFJORD 

THE VIKING SHIP, VARIOUS VIEWS OF . 
ST. ANSGARIUS THE APOSTLE OF THE NORTH 

IRON IMPLEMENT USE UNKNOWN . 

TWO-EDGED SWORD .... 

BUCKLE FROM THE IRON AGE . 
RUIN OF NORSE TOWER AT MOSO 
BUCKLE WITH BYZANTINE ORNAMENTATION 
GILT BUCKLE FOUND AT SKEDSMO . 
CYLINDRICAL MOUNTING IN BRONZE 
IRON POINT OF SPEAR, IRON CHISEL 
FRYING-PAN OF BRONZE .... 

xxi 



AT 



5 
7 

7 
8 

9 

9 

lO 

II 
14 
15 
17 
19 

26 
29 
33 
35 
37 
39 
43 
51 
72 
76 
84 
89 



xxu 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



BREASTPIN OF BRONZE .... 
OVAL BRONZE BUCKLE .... 
EGIL WOOLSARK's MONUMENT 
ORNAMENTAL BRONZE MOUNTING . 

CHURCH AT EGILO 

SCISSORS AND ARROW-HEAD OF IRON 
HAROLD BLUETOOTH .... 

RUNESTONE FROM STRAND IN RYFYLKE . 

OBLONG BUCKLE 

OLAF TRYGGVESSON's ARRIVAL IN NORWAY 

OLD NORSE LOOM 

RUNIC STONE FROM GRAN IN HADELAND 

INSTRUMENT OF UNKNOWN USE 

OLD LOOM FROM THE FAEROE ISLANDS . 

CHURCH AT MOSTER ISLAND . 

SHUTTLES OF IRON AND WHALEBONE 

KNIVES OF IRON FOUND IN HEDEMARK AND HADE 

LAND 

ST. OLAF FROM DRONTHEIM CATHEDRAL 
ST. OLAF AND THE TROLDS . • _^ 

MAGNUS THE GOOD AND KALF ARNESSON 

STIKLESTAD 

MARBLE LION FROM THE PIR^US 

POMMEL OF GILT BRONZE FROM THE VIKING A 

THE OLD MAN OF HOY .... 

INTERIOR OF ORKHAUGEN 

HITTERDAL CHURCH . . . 

VILLAGE DURING FISHING SEASON . 

THE RAFT SUND IN VESTFJORD 

HORNELEN 

THORGHATTEN 

HONEFOSS 

HAAKON HAAKONSSON AND HELGE HVASSE 
WEST FRONT OF DRONTHEIM CATHEDRAL 



AT 



GE 



PAGE. 

93 
96 

97 
103 
107 
117 
121 

141 
145 
153 
155 
159 
167 

175 

26% 
219 
223 

235 
241 
250 
271 
279 
299 
315 

339 
363 
371 
397 

403 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii 

PAGE. 

OLD NORSE CAPITALS 409 

ON THE SOGNE FJORD 415 

A STORM ON THE FJORD 419 

NORWEGIAN STABBUR OR STORE-HOUSE . . -431 

HORGADAL IN THE NORTH OF ICELAND . . . 435 

ALMANNAGJAA WITH THE HILL OF LAWS . . 439 

QUEEN MARGARET . . . . . . . 471 

CHRISTIAN I . . 479 

BELT WRESTLING . . . . . . . 491 

THE NORTH CAPE . . ... . . 493 

FREDERICK III., KING OF DENMARK AND NORWAY . 497 

THE CAPERCAILZIE IN NORWAY .... 505 

CARVED LINTEL, STABBUR, AND BEER-MUGS . . 507 

PEASANTS DANCING 51I 

PRINCE CHRISTIAN FREDERICK, VICEROY OF NORWAY 517 

CHARLES XIV. JOHN (bERNADOTTe) . . . 521 

skee-running . . . . . . . 525 

bride and groom . . . . . . . 529 

portrait of oscar ii. ..... . 533 

bjornstjerne bjornson . ... 537 





THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



CHAPTER I. 



WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN ? 



The Norsemen are a Germanic race, and belong, 
accordingly, to the great Aryan family. Their next 
of kin are the Swedes and Danes. Their original 
home was Asia, and probably that part of Asia 
which the ancients called Bactria, near the sources 
of the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes. Not only the 
Norsemen are supposed to have come from this 
region, but the ancestors of all the Aryan nations 
which now inhabit the greater portion of the civ- 
ilized world. Among the first to leave this cradle of 
nations were the tribes which settled upon the 
eastern islands and peninsulas of the Mediterranean, 
and, under'the name of Hellenes, developed, long 
before the Christian era, an art and a literature which 
are, in some respects, yet unrivalled. The early 
Italic tribes, from which sprung in time the world- 
empire of Rome, trace their descent from the same 
ancestry ; as do also the Kelts, who in ancient times 
inhabited England, Ireland, and France ; the Slavs 
who settled in the present Russia, Bohemia, and the 



2 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

northern Turkish provinces ; and the Germans, who 
occupied the great central regions of the European 
continent. Among Asiatic nations, the Iranians 
inhabiting Persia, and the Hindoos in India, have 
Aryan blood. 

It seems almost incredible that persons differing 
so widely in appearance, habits, and disposition, as, 
for instance, a Hindoo and an Englishman, should, 
if you go sufficiently far back, have the same ances- 
try. And yet there cannot be the slightest doubt 
that such is the case. The question, then, naturally 
arises : ** If they were once alike, what can have 
made them so different } " And the answer is : 
" The climate, the soil, and the general character of 
the countries in which they settled." 

The country from which the first Aryans emi- 
grated was mountainous, with fertile valleys, and an 
even, temperate climate. There was no excessive 
heat to make men drowsy and indolent, nor exces- 
sive cold to stunt them in their growth and paralyze 
their energies. The earth did not, as in the tropics, 
produce a luxurious vegetation which would support 
the inhabitants without labor, but it offered sus- 
tenance to herds of cattle which, with the proper 
care, would supply the simple needs of primitive 
men. The race, thus situated, progressed physically 
as well as mentally, until it became superior to all 
the tribes inhabiting the neighboring regions. War 
followed, in which the weaker succumbed. The 
Aryans, increasing rapidly in numbers, took pos- 
session of the conquered territories, enslaved the 
indigenous population, or drove it back into locali- 



WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN? 3 

ties where the conditions of Hfe were less favorable. 
It is not positively known when the first migration 
on a large scale took place ; but some scholars have 
supposed that the Hindoos separated from the parent 
race as early as 1500 B.C. The dates of the Greek, 
Italic, Keltic, and Slavic migrations are likewise un- 
certain, and the period which has been fixed upon 
for the Aryan occupation of Germany is also con- 
jectural. The same uncertainty prevails regarding 
thee arliest history of the Scandinavian tribes ; al- 
though there is a strong probability that their in- 
vasion of the countries which they now inhabit must 
have taken place during the second century preceding 
the Christian era. It is not unlikely that they left 
their Asiatic home simultaneously with the Germans, 
with whom they were then almost, if not entirely, 
identical, and that their conquering hordes spread 
northward, subduing the Finns and Lapps, whom 
they found in possession of the land, partly extermi- 
nating them, partly forcing them up into the barren 
mountains of the extreme North. Among the tribes 
whose path of conquest was turned in this direction, 
the Goths (Gauter), the Swedes {Svear), and the 
Danes {Daner) were the most prominent, though 
several other names are mentioned, both by native 
and foreign authors. The name Norseman, or 
Northman, is not found among these, because i't 
refers not to any of the Aryan tribes, but is solely 
derived from the country in which they settled. 
Their country soon became known as Norway (Nor- 
egr or Norvegr), i. e,, the Northern Way. It is the 
long strip of territory extending north and south 



4 THE ST OR V OF NOR WA Y. 

between the mountain chain Kjolen, which separates 
it from Sweden and the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. 
It looks on the map like a big bag slung across the 
shoulders of Sweden. 

It is a wonderful country — this land of the Norse- 
men. The ocean roars along its rock-bound coast, 
and during the long, dark winter the storms howl 
and rage, and hurl the waves in white showers of 
spray against the sky. Great swarms of sea-birds 
drift like snow over the waters, and circle screaming 
around the lonely cliffs. The aurora borealis flashes 
like a huge shining fan over the northern heavens, 
and the stars glitter with a keen frosty splendor. 
But in the summer all this is changed, suddenly, as 
by a miracle. Then the sun shines warmly, even 
within the polar circle ; innumerable wild flowers 
sprout forth, the swelling rivers dance singing to the 
sea, and the birches mingle their light-green foliage 
with the darker needles of the pines. In the north- 
ern districts it is light throughout the night, even 
during the few hours while the sun dips beneath the 
horizon ; the ocean spreads like a great burnished 
mirror under the cloudless sky, the fishes leap, and 
the gulls and eider-ducks rock tranquilly upon the 
shining waters. All along the coast there are excel- 
lent harbors, which are free of ice both winter and 
summer. A multitude of islands, some rocky and 
barren, others covered with a scant growth of grass 
and trees, afford hiding-places for ships and pastur- 
age for cattle. Moreover, long arms of the ocean — 
the so-called- fiords — penetrate far into the country, 
and being filled with water from the gulf-stream 



WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN ? 



5 



which strikes the western coast of Norway, tend 
greatly to moderate the cHmate. About the shores 
of these fiords narrow strips of arable land stretch 
themselves, with many interruptions, along the edge 
of the water, and here the early Germanic settlers 
built their houses and began their fight for existence. 
Behind them and before them the great snow-hooded 





STONE AXES FROM THE LATER STONE AGE. 

mountains rose threateningly, sending down upon 
them avalanches, floods, and sudden whirlwinds. 
But, nothing daunted, they clung to the soil, ex- 
plored the land and the sea, and selected the most 
favorable sites for their permanent dwellings. 

It is tolerably certain that the Aryan settlers in 
Norway knew at that time very little of agriculture, 



O THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

but made their living by hunting, fishing, and cattle- 
raising. The huts which they built of logs were 
rude contrivances which could be easily torn down 
and moved. But, as at a very early period, they 
began to devote themselves more to the culture of 
the ground, their dwellings were made larger, and 
were built with greater care. When a horde of war- 
riors invaded a valley their first task was to clear 
away the forests which grew dense and dark up over 
the mountain sides. Their chieftain then built a Jiov 
or temple for the gods, where sacrifices were made 
at certain stated times. Whether it was the chief- 
tain's task to allot to each his share of land, or 
whether each one chose according to his own prefer- 
ence, is not known, but the former is the more 
probable ; for the Norsemen, proud and pugnacious 
as they were, subordinated themselves, in historic 
times, readily to their local chiefs, and accorded 
them great honor. This sense of kinship within the 
tribe and willing recognition of authority was the 
more important in Norway, because the character of 
the ground there compelled the people to live far 
apart on scattered gaards or farms, between which 
communication was often difficult. It would there- 
fore have been easy for the bonder or peasants to 
forget all public concerns and gradually to lapse into 
isolation and savagery. But here their Germanic 
nature, which had in it the germs of social progress, 
asserted itself. As the centuries passed the people 
were bound more strongly together by common pur- 
suits and common interests. First of all, their reli- 
gious observances brought them together, then the 



WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN? 



7 



necessity of defence against external enemies. Life 
and property were in those days insecure possessions, 
and it was only by acting in concert, under the lead- 
ership of a valiant chief, that the scattered peasants 
could hope to preserve either. Men had then fiercer 
and more inflammable passions than they have now, 
and only fear of retaliation could teach them self- 
restraint. 





STONE HAMMER. 



STONE USED FOR SHAPING 
IMPLEMENTS. 



It happened in this way that almost every separate 
valley in Norway became a little kingdom by itself. 
Such a diminutive kingdom was called ^.fylki. There 
was not always a king, but a chief there was always, 
and sometimes more than one. To the king be- 
longed the leadership in war. He was in some 
district called dijarl ov earl, though this name came 



8 THE SrOR V OF NOR WA Y. 

in later times to mean not an independent ruler, but 
rather a land-grave, a royal governor. The king could 
not tax the peasants for his support, nor impose any 
burden upon them which they did not of their 
own free choice accept. As a rule, his dignity was 
inherited by his son, though the people were at 
liberty, in case they disapproved of the heir, to 
select another. This right was repeatedly exercised 
in historic times, both in Sweden and Norway. 
Sometimes, when the crops failed or bad weather 
destroyed their herds, the peasants sacrificed their 
king to their gods. All public misfortunes they 




STONE KNIFE, 



interpreted as a sign that the gods were angry, and 
craved bloody atonement. If the crops were good 
it was evident that their king was in favor with the 
gods. 

It thus appears that the royal dignity among the 
early Norsemen was burdened with unpleasant re- 
sponsibilities. It involved more duties than privileges, 
for, besides commanding in war, the king had also 
to conduct the public sacrifices at the great pagan 
festivals. He was thus priest as well as king. In 
fact, as before stated, he built the Jiov or temple 
himself, and it was chiefly his ownership of this, 
which raised him to a dignity superior to that of 



WHO WERE THE NORSEMEN? 



other chieftains. It was by dint of this same au- 
thority that he acted as judge at th.Q fylkis thing, or 
popular assembly, where all freeman met to consult 
concerning public and private affairs. The fylkis 
thing was neither a parliament nor a court of law, 
but both combined. Private quarrels were settled, 
blood-wites or fines agreed upon for homicides and 




ADZE OF ELK-HORN. 



STONE WEDGE. 



other injuries, and resolutions taken concerning peace 
and war. It was not a representative assembly, the 
members of which were elected by vote, but rather a 
county meeting [shireinotc) where every man who 
could bear arms had a right to make himself heard. 
You would scarcely wonder that where so many fierce 
and turbulent warriors were gathered, breaches of the 



lO 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



peace were frequent. But when swords were drawn, it 
was impossible to judge and deliberate. Therefore the 
fylkis thing was hallowed, and to break the peace of 

the thing was regard- 
ed as the greatest of 
crimes. If a man killed 
another, and publicly 
proclaimed himself his 
slayer, the crime could 
be atoned for by money 
(blood-wite) paid to the 
nearest surviving rela- 
tive of the dead man. 
If the relatives accept- 
ed the blood-wite, they 
were not at liberty to 
seek revenge. But in 
ancient times it was re- 
garded as more honora- 
ble to refuse the money 
and resort to the sword. 
If a man slew another 
secretly and denied the 
crime he was held to 
be a murderer, and 
could not offer blood- 
wite. He was then 
f ^ , if oulawed, and every 

man who saw him 
was at liberty to slay 




ROCK PICTURE OF A SHIP AT 
LOKEBERG IN BOHUSLEN. 

him. 



Such were the Norsemen during the first centuries 



12 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

after their settlement in their present home. In 
spite of their violence and proneness to bloodshed, 
you will yet admit that they had many traits which 
were admirable. They could recognize authority, 
and yet preserve their sturdy sense of independence. 
Simple and imperfect as their fylkis things were, 
they suffice to show an aptitude for self-government, 
and a recognition of the people itself, as the source 
of authority. These tall blonde men with their defiant 
blue eyes, who obeyed their kings while they had 
confidence in them, and killed them when they had 
forfeited their respect, were the ancestors of the 
Normans who under William the Conqueror in- 
vaded England, and founded the only European 
state which has since reached the highest civilization 
and the highest liberty, through slow and even stages 
of orderly development. 




CHAPTER II. 



THE RELIGION OF THE NORSEMEN. 



The Icelander Snorre Sturlasson wrote in the 
thirteenth century a very remarkable book, called 
the Heimskringia, or the Sagas of the Kings of Nor- 
way. In this book he says that Odin, the highest 
god of the Norsemen, was the chief who first led the 
Germanic tribes into Europe. He was a great war- 
rior and was always victorious. Therefore, when he 
was dead, the people made sacrifices to him and 
prayed to him for victory. They did not believe, 
however, that he was actually dead, but that he had 
returned to his old home in Asia, whence he still 
watched their fortunes and occasionally visited them 
in person. Many tales are told in the sagas of peo- 
ple who had seen Odin, particularly when a great 
battle was to be fought. He was represented as a 
tall, bearded man with one eye, and clad as a war- 
rior. He had two brothers. Vile and Ve, and many 
sons and daughters who were worshipped like him 
and became gods and godesses. Odin and his chil- 
dren were called Aesir, which Snorre says means 
Asia-men ; and their home Asgard, or Asaheiui, like- 
wise indicates their Asiatic origin. During their mi- 
grations the Aesir came in contact with another peo- 

13 



14 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

pie, called the Vanir^ with whom, after an indecisive 
battle, they formed an alliance. The Vanir then made 
common cause with the Aesir and were worshipped 
like them. 

Whether there is any basis of truth in this tradi- 
tion, is difficult to determine. We know that primi- 
tive nations usually make gods of their early kings 
and chieftains, and worship them after death. Every 
year that passes makes them look greater and more 
mysterious. In storms and earthquakes, in thunder 
and lightning, they hear their voices and see the 
manifestations of their power. More and more they 
become identified with the elements which they are 




BRONZE SWORD. (Vestergotknd in Sweden.) 

supposed to rule ; the mighty attributes of the sun, 
the sky, and the sea are given to them, and to each 
is allotted his particular sphere of action. The chief- 
tain who has been a valiant warrior in his life-time is 
supposed to give victory to those who call upon 
him. He who has excelled in the arts of peace con- 
tinues to rule over the seasons, and to give good 
crops and prosperity to those who, by sacrifices, 
secure his good-will. This may have been the origin 
of the Scandinavian gods ; although many scholars 
maintain that they were from the beginning personi- 
fications of the elements, and have never had an 
actual existence on earth. But whether they were 
originally men or sun-myths, interesting legends 




LOOK OR WAR HORN OF BRONZE. (Skaane ) 



l6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

have been told about them which may be worth 
recounting. 

In the beginning of time there were two worlds, 
Muspelheim, the world of fire, whose king was 
Surtur, and Niflheim, the world of frost and dark- 
ness. In Niflheim was the spring Hvergelmer, where 
dwelt the terrible dragon Nidhogger. Between 
these two worlds was the yawning chasm Ginnunga- 
gap. The spring Hvergelmer sent forth twelve icy 
rivers, which were called the Elivagar. These 
gradually filled up the chasm Ginnungagap. As the 
wild waters rushed into the abyss, they froze and were 
again thawed by the sparks that were blown from 
the fiery Muspelheim. The frozen vapors fell as 
hoar-frost, and the heat imparted life to them. 
They took shape and fashioned themselves into the 
Yotun or giant Ymer, from whom descends the evil 
race of frost-giants. Simultaneously with Ymer the 
cow Audhumbla came into being. She licked the 
briny hoar-frost, and a mighty being appeared with 
the shape of a man. He was large and beautiful, and 
was named Bure. His son was Bor, who married 
the daughter of a Yotun, and got three sons, Odin, 
Vile, and Ve. These three brothers slew the Yotun 
Ymer, and in his blood all the race of Yotuns was 
drowned except one couple, from whom a new race 
of giants descended. Then Odin and his brothers 
dragged the huge body of Ymer into the middle of 
Ginnungagap, and fashioned from it the world. Out 
of the flesh they made the earth, the bones became 
stones and lofty mountains, and his blood the sea. 
From his hair they made the trees, and from his 



THE RELIGION- OF THE NORSEMEN. 



17 



skull the great vault of the sky. His brain 
scattered in the air, where its fragments 
yet float about in queer, fantastic shapes, 
and are called clouds. The flying sparks 
from Muspelheim they gathered up and 
fashioned them into sun, moon, and stars, 
which they flung up against the blue vault 
of the sky. Then they arranged land and 
water so that the ocean flowed round about 
the entire earth, and beyond the watery 
waste they fixed the abode of the Yotuns, 
This cold and barren realm beyond the sea 
is therefore called Utgard or Yotunheim. 
From the earth to the sky they suspended 
a bridge of many colors, which they named 
Bifrost or the rainbow. The Yotun woman 
Night married Del.ling (the Dawn) and 
became the mother of Day, who rode in 
his shining chariot across the sky, always 
followed by his dark mother. The latter 
drove a huge black horse named Hrim- 
faxe, from whose foamy bit dropped the 
dew that refreshed the grass during the 
hours of darkness, while Day's horse, 
Skinfaxe, spread from his radiant mane the 
glorious light over the earth. It is further 
told that the heat bred in Ymer's body a 
multitude of maggots, which assumed the 
shapes of tiny men and were called 
gnomes or dwarves. They live in caves and 
mountains, and know of all the treasures of 
gold and silver and precious stones in the 



they 



iB THE STORY OF NOR WAY. 

secret chambers of the rocks. They also have great 
skill in the working of metals, but they cannot endure 
the light of the sun. Last of all man was created. One 
day when the three gods, Odin, Honer, and Lodur 
were walking on the shores of the sea they found two 
trees, and from these they made a man and a woman, 
named Ask and Embla (ash and elm). Odin gave 
them the breath of life, Honer, speech and reason, 
Lodur, blood and fair complexions. 

The old Norsemen conceived of the world as an 
enormous ash tree, named Ygdrasil, the three roots 
of which extend, one to the gods in Asgard, another 
to Yotunheim, the third to Niflheim. On the third 
gnaws continually the dragon Nidhogger. In the 
top of the tree sits an eagle ; among the branches 
four stags are running ; and up and down on the 
trunk frisks a squirrel who carries slander and en- 
deavors to make mischief between the eagle and the 
dragon. Under the root which stretches to Yotun- 
heim is the fountain of the wise Yotun Mimer, to 
whom Odin gave one of his eyes in return for a 
draught from his fountain. For whoever drank from 
its water became instantly wise. Under the sec- 
ond root of the ash, which draws its nourishment 
from heaven, is the sacred fountain of Urd, whither 
the gods ride daily over the bridge Bifrost. Here 
they meet the three Norns — Urd, Verdande, and 
Skuld (Past, Present, and Future), the august god- 
desses of Fate, whose decrees not even the gods are 
able to change. The Norns pour the water of the 
fountain over Ygdrasil's root, and thereby keep the 
world-tree alive. They govern the fates of gods 



THE RELIGION OF THE NORSEMEN. 



19 



and men, giving life or death to whomever they 
please. 

Odin dwells with all the other gods in Asgard, 
where he receives in his shining hall Valhalla all 
those who have died by the sword. He is therefore 





BUCKLE FROM THE EARLY IRON AGE. FOUND AT HETLAND IN 

STAVANGER AMT. 

called Valfather, and those fallen warriors whom he 
chooses to be his guests, are known as einheriar, 
i. e.y great champions. Valhalla is splendidly dec- 
orated with burnished weapons. The ceiling is made 
of spears, the roof is covered with shining shields. 



20 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. 

and the walls are adorned with armor and coats 
of mail. Hence the champions issue forth every 
day and fight great battles, killing and maim- 
ing each other. But every night they wake up 
whole and unscathed and return to Odin's hall, 
where they spend the night in merry carousing. 
The maidens of Odin — the Valkyries, who, before 
every battle, select those who are to be slain, wait 
upon the warriors, fill their great horns with mead, 
and give them the flesh of swine to eat. 

The great gathering-place of the gods in Asgard 
is the plains of Ida. Here is Odin's throne, where 
he sits looking out over the whole world. At his 
side sit the two wolves — Gere and Freke, and on 
his shoulders the ravens, Hugin and Munin, who 
daily fly forth and bear him tidings from the re- 
motest regions of the earth. If he wishes to travel, 
he mounts his eight-footed horse Sleipner, which car- 
ries him far and wide with wonderful speed. When 
the father of gods and men rides to battle he wears a 
helmet of gold and a suit of mail, which shines daz- 
zlingly from afar. He carries also his spear Gung- 
ner, which he sends forth whenever he wishes to 
arouse men to warfare and strife. But, besides be- 
ing the god of war, Odin also delights in poetry and 
sage counsel. He is the god of the scalds or poets; 
for he had drunk of Suttung's mead, which imparted 
the gift of song. He is well skilled in sorcery, and 
has taught men the art of writing runes. 

Thor, the son of Odin, lives in Thrudvang. He 
is the strongest of all the gods, and has an enormous 
hammer, Mjolner, with which he carries on a cease- 



The religion of the Norsemen. ±\ 

less warfare against the Yotuns, or mist-giants. He 
rides in a cart drawn by two rams across the Gjallar 
bridge (the resounding bridge), which leads to Yo- 
tunheim, and the rattling of the cart and the noise 
of his hammer, as he hurls it at the heads of the 
fleeing giants, make the vault of the sky tremble. 
This is what men call thunder. When Thor is hun- 
gry, he kills his rams and eats their flesh, but he is 
always careful to gather up the bones and to throw 
them back into the skins. Then, the next morn- 
ing, the rams are as frisky as ever and ready for ser- 
vice. Thor has a wife named Sif, whose hair is of 
gold. 

Balder, the good and the beautiful, is also the son 
of Odin. He is wise and gentle, and kindness beams 
from his countenance. His wife is Nanna, and his 
dwelling Breidablik. 

Njord is ruler of the sea, and can raise storms and 
calm the waves at his pleasure. He is of the race of 
the Vanir, but is yet worshipped as a god. He is the 
owner of great wealth, and can give prosperity to 
those who obtain his favor. Njord was married to 
the Yotun woman, Skade, but was again separated 
from her. His abode is at Noatun, from which 
he has wide view of the sea. 

Frey, the son of Njord, rules over the seasons, and 
gives peace and good crops. Fields and pastures grow, 
and the cattle thrive in the sunshine of his favor. 
He lives with his wife Gerd in Alfheim. Tyr is 
the god of courage, whom men call upon as they are 
about to go into battle. He has but one hand, 
having thrust the other into the mouth of the Fenris- 



22 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Wolf, who bit it off. Brage is the god of song, 
and of vows and pledges. He has a long beard, and 
is possessed of wisdom and eloquence. When men 
drained the horn in his honor, they made vows of 
daring deeds which they would perform, and called 
the god to witness that they would keep them. 
Many were those who, while drunk, pledged them- 
selves to foolhardy undertakings, and perished in 
the attempt to carry them out. Brage's wife is the 
ever-young Idun. She has in her keeping the won- 
derful apples, which the gods eat to preserve the 
beauty and vigor of an eternal youth. 

The watchman of the gods is named Heimdal. 
His senses are so keen that nothing can escape him. 
He can see hundreds of miles, and he can hear the 
grass grow. When he blows his Gjallar horn (the 
resounding horn), its rousing call is heard throughout 
the world. Heimdal's dwelling is Himinbjarg at 
the Bifrost Bridge. 

Among gods of less consequence may be men- 
tioned Uller, the step-son of Thor, who is a master 
in running on snow-shoes; Forsete, the son of Balder, 
who makes peace between those who have quarrelled ; 
Hoder, the blind god, who shot Balder; and the silent 
Vidar. 

Foremost among the goddesses is Frigg, the wife 
of Odin, who dwells in Fensal. She shields from 
danger those who call upon her. Freya, the Northern 
Venus, is the goddess of beauty. She is the daughter 
of Njord, and was forsaken by her husband Odd, and 
is ever hoping for his return. She travelled far and 
wide in search of him, and wept because she could 



THE RELIGION OF THE NORSEMEN. 23 

not find him. Her tears turned into gold, and gold 
is therefore by the poets called the tears of Freya. 
Her chariot, in which she drives over the sky, is 
drawn by cats, though at times she flies in the guise 
of a swan and visits distant lands. Her necklace, 
Brising, made by wonder-working gnomes, is of daz- 
zling splendor. The dwelling of Freya is Folkvang, 
and thither ascend the prayers of lovelorn swains and 
maidens. Freya's daughter, Hnos, is of marvellous 
beauty and a sweet disposition. Her name is still 
used in the nursery as a pet-name for babes. 

The dominion of the sea does not belong entirely 
to Njord. The Yotun Aeger rules over the tower- 
ing waves, and lashes them into fury, until Njord 
again curbs them and bids them be still. Yet 
Aeger is the friend of the gods, and is at times visited 
by them in his magnificent submarine hall, where 
ale and mead flow abundantly. He is himself peace- 
ably disposed toward men, but is overruled by his 
terrible wife Ran, who with her nine daughters (the 
waves,) causes shipwrecks and draws the drowned 
men down to her watery abode. 

One dweller in Asgard is still to be mentioned, and 
that is the evil Loke, who disturbs the peace of the 
gods, and will work their final ruin. He was born 
among the Yotuns, but gained the confidence of 
Odin by his agreeable presence and his fair speech. 
He delighted in mischief and loved evil-doing. He 
had three terrible children— the wolf Fenris, the 
world-serpent, and Hel. As these monsters grew up, 
the gods foresaw that their presence in Asgard 
would cause trouble. The wolf Fenris was, therefore, 



24 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

after having broken the strongest chains, tied with a 
magical cord, made of the noise of cats'-paws, wo- 
men's beard, roots of mountains, and other equally in- 
tangible things. This cord he could not break. 
The world-serpent was thrown into the ocean, where 
it continued to grow until it encircled all the earth 
and at last bit its own tail. Hel was banished to 
Helheim, where she became the ruler of the dead, and 
the goddess of the under-world. 




CHAPTER III. 

THE AGE OF THE VIKINGS. THE ORIGIN OF THE 
VIKING CRUISES. 

The Norsemen had up to the middle of the eighth 
century played no part in the world's history. Their 
very existence had been unknown or but vaguely 
known to the rest of Europe. But towards the close 
of the eighth century they broke like a destructive 
tempest over the civilized lands, spreading desolation 
in their path. When their fast-sailing ships with two 
square sails were sighted at the river-mouths, people 
fled in terror, and the priests prayed in vain : " De- 
liver us, O Lord, from the rage of the Norsemen." 

There were several reasons for this sudden warlike 
activity on the part of the Norsemen. They had 
waged war from immemorial times ; because war was 
with them the most honorable occupation. As Taci- 
tus says of their kinsmen, the Germans : " They 
deemed it a disgrace to acquire by sweat what 
they might obtain by blood." But previous to the 
viking period they had fought each other. One earl 
or king made foraging expeditions into the land of 
his neighbors, and carried away with him whatever 
booty he could lay hands on. But in this perpetual 
warfare one or the other must at length become ex- 

25 



26 



THE STORY OF NORWAY, 



hausted, and the stronger would be likely to oust or 
vanquish the weaker. This was what happened in 
the north. Large tracts of land, made up of small 
conquered kingdoms, were united under one success- 
ful chief, who, of course, made haste to prevent 
depredations within his own boundaries. With the 
growing power of these local kings, it became more 




THE VIKING SHIP RECENTLY UNEARTHED AT GOGSTAD, 
NEAR SANDEFJORD. 

and more risky to attack them, and the field for do- 
mestic warfare thus became constantly narrower. 
But war was the very condition of the chieftain's 
existence among the early Norsemen. His honor 
was dependent upon the number of his followers 
and the splendor of their equipments, and to gain 
the means to entertain and to equip them he was 
obliged to wage war. When he could no longer do 



THE VIKINGS. 2^ 

it at home, he naturally went abroad. It was neither 
ferocity nor excessive avarice which impelled him to 
draw the sword ; but the desire to preserve his honor 
among men, which, in a warlike state, is merely an- 
other form of the instinct of self-preservation. The 
high-born chieftain had to make himself formidable 
in order to protect his life and property. He had to 
live in accordance with his rank, if he wished to live 
at all. His men-at-arms were his body-guard as well 
as his army. He had to behave royally toward them 
in order to preserve their good-will ; and next to per- 
sonal valor, liberality in giving was the first duty of a 
king. The king is therefore called the breaker of 
rings (large solid arm-rings of gold being used for 
purposes of payment) and the hater of gold.* 

There is in the earliest Germanic times no sharp 
distinction between the titles '' earl " and '' king." 
The viking cruises, however, helped to establish a 
distinction. The earl who, having gathered a large 
number of warriors about him, went ab^-oad for pur- 
poses of conquest, was hailed by his men as king. A 
number of vikings, of high birth, assumed the name 
of kings, when starting on warlike expeditions ; but 
were known as sea-kings, in contra-distinction to 
those who ruled at home over a fixed domain. The 
number of these sea-kings increased (for the reasons 
cited above) enormously toward the close of the 
eighth century. They harried not only the coasts 

* Munch (Det Norske Folk's Historic, 1-124) derives the word 
king( old Norse, konungr ; Anglo-Saxon, cyning ; O. H. German, 
chuninc and chunig) from Kun or Kon, meaning race, descent ; and 
interprets the word as meaning (like Lat., generosus) of high birth or 
descent. 



28 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

of the neighboring lands, but they crossed the North 
Sea and the Baltic, carrying away or slaughtering the 
inhabitants and destroying the cities. Churches and 
monasteries they plundered, scattering the bones of 
the saints to the four winds ; all that Christian men 
held sacred they trod under foot. And yet we must 
bear in mind that all we know about these early 
vikings is derived from the writings of their enemies, 
who were smarting under the injury they had done 
them. That they were fierce and brutal is credible 
enough. The warlike state is in itself brutalizing. 
It arouses all the slumbering savagery in man, and 
smothers his gentler impulses. But certain moral 
qualities even their hostile chroniclers concede to 
them. They admit that the Norse barbarians were, 
as a rule, faithful to their oaths and kept their 
promises. 

Three periods* are recognizable in the viking age, 
though there are, in point of time, no sharp divisions 
between them. It would, perhaps, be more correct 
to say that there were three kinds of vikings. The 
first cruises were more or less tentative and irregular. 
Chieftains gather about them crews for a few ships 
and sail over to England, Denmark, or Flanders, 
where they attack a city or a monastery, and return 
home with their booty. The second period shows 
an advance in the art of war and in military experi- 
ence. Several vikings attack in company some ex- 
posed point, take possession of it, erect fortifications, 
and make forays into the surrounding country. 
During the third period the Norsemen abandon 

* Sai-s : " Udsigt over den Norske Historic," 1-90. 




■^^-^ 



I. SIDE VIEW OF THE GOGSTAD VIKING SHIP. 2. — VIKING SHIP 

RESTORED. 3. — DETAILS OF VIKING SHIP. 



30 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

their character of pirates and assume the role of 
conquerors. With large fleets, counting from one 
to five hundred ships, they storm and sack cities, 
assume the government of the conquered territories, 
treat, as regular belligerents, with kings and em- 
perors, and establish themselves permanently in the 
conquered land. Of the two first classes of vikings 
we have only scattered and unreliable accounts. To 
go on viking cruises is a recognized occupation in the 
Norse sagas, and it was regarded as a kind of liberal 
education for a young man of good birth to spend 
some years of his youth on such expeditions. His 
honor was thereby greatly increased at home, and 
his position in society assured. Royal j^ouths of 
twelve or fifteen years often went abroad as com- 
manders of viking fleets, in order to test their man- 
hood and accumulate experience and knowledge of 
men. 

The third class of vikings, the conquerors, have 
found their historians both at home and abroad; and 
the different, narratives, though not strictly accurate, 
supplement and correct each other. It is these con- 
quering vikings who have demonstrated the historic 
mission of Norway, and doubly indemnified the world 
for the misery they brought upon it. The ability 
to endure discipline without loss of self-respect, 
voluntary subordination for mutual benefit, and 
the power of orderly organization, based upon these 
qualities, these were the contributions of the Norse 
vikings to the political life of Europe. The feudal 
state, which, with all its defects, is yet the indispen- 
sable basis of a higher civilization, has its root in the 



THE VIKINGS. 31 

Germanic instinct of loyalty — of mutual allegiance 
between master and vassal ; and the noble spirit of 
independence which restrains and limits the power 
of the ruler, and at a later stage leads to constitutional 
government, is even a more distinctly Norse than 
Germanic characteristic. While Norway, up under 
the pole, has developed a democracy, Germany, 
coming at too early a period into contact with 
Rome, has developed a military despotism under 
constitutional forms. The breath of new life which 
the vikings infused into history lives to-day in Nor- 
way, in England, and in America. 

Among the earliest conquests of the Norse vik- 
ings was a portion of the present Sleswick which 
after them was called Nortmannia. It is possible 
that they recognized the sovereignty of the kings of 
Denmark, though there is no direct evidence that 
they regarded themselves as vassals. The first in- 
telligence we obtain concerning them is that their 
king Sigfrid, in the year "JJJy received hospitably the 
Saxon chieftain Widukind, who, when summoned to 
meet Charlemagne in Paderborn, fled northward and 
sought refuge with his Norse co-religionists. This 
Sigfrid belonged to the renowned race of the Yng- 
lings, from whom descended Harold the Fairhaired, 
and through him a long line of Norwegian kings. A 
later king of Nortmannia, who also had great pos- 
sessions in Norway, was Gudrod or Godfrey the 
Hunter. He came, through the friendship of the 
Saxons, repeatedly into collision with Charlemagne, 
and even threatened to attack the emperor in Aachen. 
It is told that he was killed by his own men in the 



32 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

year 809. He had about a year before attacked and 
slain the king of Agder, whose daughter Aasa he mar- 
ried. She bore him a son named Halfdan the 
Swarthy, but avenged her father's death by inducing 
her servant to kill her husband while he was drunk. 
One of Godfrey's sons, Erik, carried on an intermit- 
tent warfare with Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, 
sent embassies to Aachen, and in 845, during the 
reign of Louis the German, sacked and burned the 
city of Hamburg. St. Ansgarius, the apostle of the 
North, who had been established by the emperor as 
archbishop of Hamburg, fled with all his priests ; 
and the church and the monastery which he had 
founded were utterly destroyed. 

It was not only in his remote northern domains that 
Charlemagne came in contact with the vikings. The 
chronicles of the Monks of St. Gall relate that he also 
encountered them in his Mediterranean provinces. 
Once, as he was visiting a city in Gallia Narbonensis, 
some fast-sailing Norse ships with square sails were 
seen out in the harbor. Soon a message was brought 
to the emperor that the crews had landed and were 
plundering the shore. Nobody then knew to what 
nationality these ships belonged, some conjecturing 
that they were Jewish, others African, and again 
others that they were British merchant vessels. 

'' No," said Charlemagne, '* these ships are not 
filled with merchandise, but with the most pugna- 
cious foes." 

Hearing this everybody seized his weapons and 
hastened to the harbor ; but the vikings had in the 
meanwhile learned that the emperor was in the city. 



THE VIKINGS. 



33 



and as they were not strong enough to fight with 
him, they fled to sea. 

It is related that Charlemagne, as he stood at his 




ST. ANSGARIUS, THE APOSTLE OF THE NORTH. 

window and watched their flight, wept. Remarking 
the wonder of his men, he said : 

^' I do not weep because I fear that these mis- 
creants can do me any harm ; but I am grieved that, 
while I am alive, they have dared to show themselves 



34 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Upon this coast ; and I foresee with dread all the evil 
they will do to my descendants." "^ 

This story, endowing the emperor with prophetic 
vision, has a certain legendary flavor, and may be a 
monkish invention. Similar prophecies, dating af- 
ter the event, are found in other ecclesiastical au- 
thors, and show sufficiently the feeling with which 
the Norsemen were regarded. It is especially one 
typical viking, the renowned Hasting, who figures 
both in sacred and profane chronicles. He sailed 
up the Loire in 841, with a large fleet, burned 
the city of Amboise, and besieged Tours. The in- 
habitants, however, carried the bones of their patron 
saint up on the walls ; and, according to the story, by 
the intervention of the saint, the vikings were put 
to flight. In 845, Hasting is reported to have at- 
tacked Paris, in company with Bjorn Ironside, the 
son of Ragnar Lodbrok. To the Baltic and even to 
the s'hore of the Mediterranean this fearless marau- 
der extended his ravages, and as success attended 
his banner, he grew more daring and determined to 
lay siege to Rome. 

He even aspired to put the imperial crown upon 
his brow. With as large a fleet as he could muster 
he sailed through the Pillars of Hercules, but before 
he reached the mouth of the Tiber, a storm drove 
his ships to the city of Luna, near Carrara. Being 
poorly versed in geography, Hasting mistook this 
city for Rome, and resolved to capture it by strate- 

* Munch (Det. Norske Folks Historic 1-414) questions the credibil- 
ity of this story, because the Norsemen did not show themselves in 
the Mediterranean as early as the chronicle here indicates ; in fact 
not before 800 A.D. 



THE VIKINGS, 



35 



gem. He sent word to the bishop that he was 
very ill and desired to be baptized, so that he 
might die a Christian. The bishop, as well as 
the commander of the town, fell into the trap. 
DeHghted at the prospect of gaining so valuable 
a convert, they opened the gates and invited 
the Norsemen to enter. These, in the mean- 
while, declared, that since sending his message. 
Hasting had died ; and with great pomp they 
bore his coffin, followed by a funeral procession 
of enormous length, into the cathedral where 
the bishop stood ready to read the mass for the 
repose of the viking's soul. Suddenly, however, 
as the coffin was deposited before the altar and 



IRON IMPLEMENT OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE ; USE UNKNOWN. 

the mass commenced, Hasting sprang up, flung 
away his shroud, and stood in flashing armor before 
the astonished populace. His men, at this signal, 
also flung off their mourning cloaks and drew their 



36 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

swords. . The bishop and his priests were killed, and 
blood flowed in torrents through the sacred aisles. 
A terrible carnage ensued, and the city was captured. 
Having accomplished this enterprise, Hasting dis- 
covered that, while deceiving, he had himself been 
deceived. It was not Rome he had taken after all. 
Whether he accepted this as an omen or not, he lost 
his desire to make his entry into the eternal city. 
Content with the booty he had accumulated, he 
turned his prows toward France where he became the 
vassal of Charles the Bald, from whom he received 
valuable fiefs.* 

Many other vikings are mentioned in chronicles 
of feter date, who by their incessant attacks upon the 
coasts, taxed the energy of the weak Carolingian 
kings to the utmost. One of them, named Ragnar, 
is said to have plundered Paris in 845, and another, 
named Asgeir, had four years earlier sacked and 
burned Rouen and the monastery Jumieges. He 
spent eleven years ravaging the coasts of France, and 
finally, in 851, sailed up the Seine, destroyed the 
monastery Fontenelle and burned Beauvois. On 
his return to the sea he was defeated by the French, 
and had to hide with his men in the woods, but suc- 
ceeded in recapturing his ships and making good his 
escape. Of a third one, Rorek, it is told that about 
the year 862 he accepted Christianity, without, as it 
appears, experiencing any perceptible change of 
heart. After having ravaged Dorestad and Nim- 

*The Norse Sagas make no mention of Hasting, and Munch (1-429) 
gives several reasons for questioning whether he M^as an historical 
character. 



THE VIKINGS. 



37 



wegen, two flourishing cities on the Rhine, and 
having defended himself heroically against King Lo- 




TWO-EDGED SWORD. HILT OF SILVER AND BRONZE. 

thair, the younger, he made peace (873) with Louis 
the German, and refrained from further depredations. 



38 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 

There is a certain uniformity in the deeds of the 
vikings, whether they be Norsemen or Danes, which 
makes further description superfluous. Only a few 
of their more daring enterprises may be briefly 
alluded to. 

To Ireland the Norsemen had been attracted at a 
comparatively early period. In the last decade of 
the eighth century they destroyed the monastery of 
lona or Icolmkill, and between the years 8io and 
830 they spread terror and devastation along the 
entire coast. In the year 838 they sailed with one 
hundred and twenty ships up to Dublin and con- 
quered the city, under the leadership of Thorgisl, 
who still lives in Irish song and story under the 
names of Turges and Turgesius. 

''After many sharp fights," says an old author,* 
'' he conquered in a short time all Ireland, and 
erected, wherever he went, high fortifications of 
masonry with deep moats, of which many ruins are 
yet to be seen in the country." At last he fell in 
love with the daughter of Maelsechnail, king in 
Meath, and demanded of him that he should send 
her to him, attended by fifteen young maidens. 
Thorgisl promised to meet her with the same num- 
ber of high-born Norsemen on an island in Loch 
Erne. But instead of maidens Maelsechnail sent 
fifteen beardless young men, disguised as women and 
armed with daggers. When Thorgisl arrived he was 
attacked by these and slain. On a previous occasion 
Maelsechnail had asked Thorgisl what he should do 

* Giraldus Cambrensis, De Topog7\ Hibernicc, cap. 37. Quoted 
from Munch, 1-438. 



THE VIKINGS. 



39 



to get rid of some strange and injurious birds that 
had got into the country. '' Destroy their nests," 




BUCKLE FROM THE IRON AGE. 



said Thorgisl. Accordingly Maelsechnail began at 
once to destroy the Norse castles, while the Irish 
slew or chased away the Norsemen. 



40 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

It appears probable that Thorgisl's reign in Ire- 
land lasted from 838 to 846, although a much longer 
period is given by the above-quoted chronicler. A 
more enduring sway over the country was gained by 
the Norse sea-king Olaf the White, who belonged to 
the great Yngling race. In 852 a company of Danish 
vikings had possession of Dublin ; but Olaf defeated 
them and compelled them to send him hos- 
tages. He then established himself in the city, 
built castles, and taxed the surrounding country. 
Two other Norsemen, the brothers Sigtrygg and 
Ivar, founded about the same time kingdoms — the 
former in Waterford, the latter in Limerick, — with- 
out, however, being able to compete with Olaf in 
splendor and power. The dominion of the Norsemen 
in Dublin is said to have lasted for three hundred 
and fifty years. From Irish sources a somewhat 
different account is derived of these remarkable 
events. It is told that the Norsemen often sailed 
up the rivers, not as warriors, but as peaceful mer- 
chants, and that the Irish found it advantageous to 
trade with them. They thus gained considerable 
possessions in the cities, and when the vikings came 
there was already a party in the larger cities who 
favored them and made their conquests easy. 

From Dublin Olaf the White made two cruises to 
Scotland, laid siege to Dumbarton, sailed southward 
to England, plundering and ravaging, and returned 
to Dublin with two hundred ships laden with pre- 
cious booty. The Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the 
Faroe Isles were also, during this period, repeatedly 
visited by the vikings, and even to Iceland expedi- 



THE VIKINGS. \l 

tions were made, which did not, however, result in 
permanent settlement. The Irish hermits and pious 
monks, who had retired from the world into the 
Arctic solitude, were disturbed in their devotions 
by the unwelcome visitors, and the majority re- 
turned to Ireland, while some are said to have 
remained until the island was regularly settled by 
the Norsemen. 

To England the Norsemen went for the first time 
with hostile intent in 787. During the reign of 
King Beorthric in Wessex a small flock of vikings 
landed in the neighborhood of Dorchester, killed some 
people, and were driven away again. The Anglo- 
Saxon chronicle '^ relates the incident in these words: 

'' In this year (787) King Beorthric married Ead- 
burg, daughter of King Offa. In those days came 
for the first time Northmen and ships from Heredh- 
aland. The gcrcfa (commander) rode down to 
them and wished to drive them to the king's dwel- 
ling. For he knew not who they were ; but they 
slew him there. These were the first ships belong- 
ing to Danish men which visited England." 

It is noticeable that the ships are said in the same 
breath to have belonged to Northmen and to Danes, 
and it is obvious that the chronicler supposes the 
terms to be synonymous. The Heredhaland from 
which the men came was in all probability Harde- 
land in Jutland, where the Norsemen had at that 
time a colony. 

The next attack of which we have an account was 
directed against the coast of Northumberland, and 

* Monum. Hist. Brit., pp. 336, 337. Quoted from Munch, i., 416, 



42 THE ST OR Y OF NOR IV A V. 

took place In the year 794. The monk Simeon of 
Durham,* who Hved in the beginning of the twelfth 
century, writes as follows : 

*' The heathen came from the northern countries 
to Britain like stinging wasps, roamed about like 
savage wolves, robbing, biting, killing not only 
horses, sheep, and cattle, but also priests, acolytes, 
monks, and nuns. They went to Lindisfarena 
church, destroying everything in the most miserable 
manner, and trod the sanctuary with their profane 
feet, threw down the altars, robbed the treasures of 
the church, killed some of the brothers, carried 
others away in captivity, mocked many and flung 
them away naked, and threw some into the ocean. 
In 794 they harried King Ecgfridh's harbor, and 
plundered the monastery of Donmouth. But St. Cuth- 
bert did not permit them to escape unpunished ; for 
their chieftain was visited with a cruel death by the 
English and, a short time after, their ships were 
destroyed by a storm, and many of them perished ; 
a few who swam ashore were killed without pity." 

It is an odd circumstance that while an incessant 
stream of Norse vikings, during the first half of 
the ninth century, poured southward, devastating 
the shores of the Baltic and the Mediterra- 
nean, only a comparatively small number found 
their way to England. We hear in the Sagas of 
many individual warriors who visited the Saxon 
kings in England and took service under them, and 
of several who sailed up the Thames and put an em- 
bargo on the trade of the river, capturing every ship 

* Simeon of Durham, Monum. Hist. Brit., p. 668. Quoted from 
Munch, i., 417. 



THE VIKINGS. 



43 



that ventured into their clutches. But as a field for 
conquest they left England (probably not from any 
fraternal consideration) to their kinsmen, the Danes, 
while they themselves turned their attention to 




RUIN OF NORSE TOWER AT MOSO, SHETLAND ISLANDS. 

France, Ireland, and the isles north of Scotland. In 
the Hebrides, the Orkneys, the Shetland Islands, and 
the Faeroe Isles, their descendants are still living, 
and Norse names are yet frequent. 

Another notable circumstance in connection with 



44 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

the vikings is, that the very men whom foreign 
chroniclers describe as stinging wasps and savage 
wolves, and of whom the greatest atrocities are re- 
lated during their sojourn abroad, became, as a rule, 
after their return home, men of weight and influence, 
with respect for tradition and law — men who, accord- 
ing to the standard of the time, were moral and hon- 
orable. There were exceptions, of course, but they 
go to prove the rule. The explanation is not far to 
seek. Religion in those days was tribal, and morality 
had no application outside the tribe. Every people 
is the chosen people of its own god or gods. As the 
Jews divided humanity into Jews and Gentiles, and 
the Greeks into Greeks and barbarians, so the Norse- 
men retaliated towards Jews and Greeks, by including 
them with all other nations in the Norse equivalent 
for barbarians. English, Irish, and Germans, often 
men of high birth, were constantly brought to Nor- 
way by the vikings as thralls, bartered and sold and 
forced to menial tasks. No law extended its pro- 
tection to them ; and yet maltreatment of thralls 
was, both in Iceland and Norway, regarded as un- 
worthy of a freeman. For all that, the vikings 
were children of their age, and practised only the 
rude morality which their religion prescribed. The 
humanitarian sentiment which regards all men as 
brethren and creatures of the same God is a com- 
paratively modern growth, and it would be unfair to 
judge the old Norsemen by any such advanced 
standard. It is therefore quite credible that the 
vikings may have been guilty of deeds abroad 
which they would not have committed at home. 



CHAPTER IV. 

HALFDAN THE SWARTHY. 

The Yngling race traced its ancestry from the god 
Frey. Snorre Sturlasson, in his famous work, " The 
Sagas of the Kings of Norway," * mentions a long 
line of kings who were descended from Fjolne, a son 
of Frey, and reigned in Sweden having their residence 
in Upsala. Yngve was one of the god's surnames, and 
Yngling means a descendant of Yngve. One of the 
Ynglings, named Aun the Old, sacrificed every ten 
years one of his sons to Odin, having been prom- 
ised that for every son he sacrificed, ten years 
should be added to his life. When he had thus 
slain seven sons, and was so old that he had to be fed 
like an infant, his people grew weary of him and saved 
the eighth son, whom he was about to sacrifice. 
Ingjald Ill-Ruler, when he took the kingdom on the 
death of his father Anund, sixth in descent from 
Aun the Old, made a great funeral feast, to which he 
invited all the neighboring kings. When he rose to 
drink the Brage goblet, f he vowed that he would in- 



* " The Heimskringla, or the Sagas of the Kings of Norway," by 
the Icelander Snorre Sturlasson, was written in the twelfth century, 
and continued by his nephew Sturla Thordsson, is the principal source 
of the history of Norway up to the middle of the thirteenth century. 

f The toast to the god Brage. 

45 



4^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

crease his kingdom by one half toward all the four 
corners of the heavens, or die in the attempt. As a 
preliminary step he set fire to the hall, burned his 
guests, and took possession of their lands. When he 
died, about the middle of the seventh century, he 
was so detested by his people that they would not 
accept his son, nor any of his race, as his successor. 
The son, whose name was Olaf, therefore gathered 
about him as many as would follow him, and emi- 
grated to the great northern forests, where he felled 
the trees, gained much arable lands, and thereby 
acquired the nickname The Wood-cutter.'^ He and 
his people became prosperous, and a great influx of 
the discontented from the neighboring lands followed. 
In fact, so great was the number of immigrants that 
the country could not feed them, and they were 
threatened with famine. This they attributed, how- 
ever, to the fact that Olaf was not in the favor of 
the gods, and they sacrificed him to Odin. 

His son, Half dan Whiteleg,f was a great warrior. 
He conquered Raumarike in Norway and the great 
and fertile district called Vestfold, west of the fjord 
called Folden (now the Christiania Fjord). Here 
he founded a famous temple in Skiringssal, which 
soon became a flourishing trading station and a 
favorite residence of the Norwegian kings. The 
third in descent from him was the great viking 
Godfrey the Hunter, who waged war against Charle- 
magne, and Godfrey's son was Halfdan the 
Swarthy. 

Halfdan was but a year old in 8io when his father 

* Tretelgja. f Hvitbein. 



HALFDAN THE SWARTHY. 4/ 

was killed. At the age of eighteen, he assumed the 
government of Agder, which he inherited from his 
maternal grandfather. By warfare and by marriage 
he also increased the great possessions he had re- 
ceived from his father, and, was, beyond dispute, 
the mightiest king in all Norway. It is told of him 
that he was a man of great intelligence, who loved 
justice and truth. He gave laws which he himself 
kept and compelled every one else to keep. In or- 
der that no one should with impunity tread the law 
under foot, he fixed a scale of fines which offenders 
should pay in accordance with their birth and dig- 
nity. This code was the so-called Eidsiva-Law, 
which had great influence in politically uniting the 
southern districts of Norway which Halfdan had 
gathered under his sway. 

About King Halfdan's second marriage a story is 
told, which, whether originally true or not, has ob- 
viously been the subject of legendary adornment. 
It runs as follows : 

There was a king in Ringerike whose name was 
Sigurd Hjort. He was a large and strong man. He 
had a daughter named Ragnhild, who was very 
beautiful, and a son named Guttorm. While Sigurd 
Hjort was out hunting he was attacked by the 
berserk'^ Hake and thirty men. He fought desper- 
ately, and slew twelve of his assailants, and cut off 
Hake's hand, but in the end he had to bite the dust. 
The berserk then rode to his house and carried away 

* Berserks or berserkir were champions of extraordinary strength, 
who in battle were possessed with a sanguinary fury which made them 
irresistible. Many of them were reputed to be were -wolves, and to 
be invulnerable. 



48 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Ragnhild and Guttorm, besides much valuable 
property. He determined to marry Ragnhild and 
would have done so at once, if his wound had not 
grown constantly more painful. At Yule-tide, when 
King Halfdan came to feast in Hedemark, he heard 
of the outrage and resolved to punish it. He sent 
one of his trusted warriors, named HaarekGand, with 
a hundred armed men to Hake's house ; they ar- 
rived in the early morning before any one was awake. 
They set sentinels at all the doors, then broke into 
the sleeping-rooms and carried off Sigurd Hjort's 
children and the stolen goods. Then they set fire 
to the house and burned it up. Hake escaped, but 
seeing Ragnhild drive gayly away over the ice with 
King Halfdan's men, he threw himself upon his 
sword and perished. Halfdan the Swarthy became 
enamored of Ragnhild, as soon as he saw her, and 
made her his wife. 

While Queen Ragnhild was with child she dreamed 
marvellous dreams. Once she seemed to be standing 
in the garden, trying to take a thorn out of her chem- 
ise, but the thorn grew in her hand until it was like 
a long spindle — the one end of which struck root in 
the earth, while the other shot up into the air. Pres- 
ently it looked like a big tree, and it grew bigger and 
bigger and taller and taller, until she stood in its 
shade and her eye could scarcely reach to the top 
of it. The lower part of the tree was red as blood ; 
further up the trunk was green and fair, and the 
branches were radiantly white like snow. They 
were, however, of very unequal size, and it seemed 
to her that they spread out over the whole kingdom 
of Norway. 



HA LED AN THE SWARTHY. 49 

King Halfdan was much puzzled at hearing this 
dream, and perhaps a Httle jealous too. Why was it 
that his wife had such remarkable dreams, while he 
had none? He consulted a wise man as to the 
cause of this, and was by him advised to sleep in a 
pig-sty ; then he would be sure to have remarkable 
dreams. The king did as he had been told, and 
dreamed that his hair was growing very long and 
beautiful. It fell in bright locks about his head 
and shoulders, but the locks were of unequal length 
and color ; some seemed like little curly knots just 
sprouting from his scalp, while others hung down 
over his back, even unto the waist. But one lock 
there was that was brighter and more baautiful than 
all the rest. 

The king related this dream to his sage friend, who 
interpreted it to mean that a mighty race of kings 
should spring from him, and that his descendants, 
though some of them should attain to great glory, 
should be unequal in fame. But one of them should 
be greater and more glorious than all the rest. The 
longest and brightest lock, says Snorre, was sup- 
posed to indicate Olaf the Saint. 

When her time came, the queen bore a son who 
was named Harold. He grew rapidly in stature 
as in intelligence, and was much liked by all 
men. He was fond of manly sports and won ad- 
miration by his strength and his beauty. His 
mother loved him much, while his father often 
looked upon him with disfavor. Of his childhood 
many tales are told which cannot lay claim to credi- 
bility. Thus, it is said, that once, while King Half- 



50 



THE STORY OF NORWAY, 



dan was celebrating Yule-tide on Hadeland, all the 
dishes and the ale suddenly disappeared from the 
table. The guests went home, and the king, full of 
wrath, remained sitting. In order to find out who 
had dared thus to trifle with his dignity, he seized a 




BUCKLE WITH BYZANTINE ORNAMENTATION, FOUND AT HOEN IN EKER. 

Finn, who was a sorcerer, and tormented him. The 
Finn appealed to Harold, who, contrary to his 
father's command, rescued him and followed him to 
the mountains. After a while, they came to a place 
where a chieftain was having a grand feast with his 



HALFDAN THE SWARTHY. $1 

men. There they remained until spring, and when 
Harold was about to take his leave, his host said to 
him : '' Your father took it much to heart that I 
took some meat and beer away from him last winter ; 
but for what you did to me I will reward you with 
glad tidings. Your father is now dead, and you will 
go home and inherit his kingdom. But some day 
you will be king of all Norway." 

When Harold returned home, he found that the 
chieftain had spoken the truth. His father had been 
drowned while driving across the ice on the Rands- 
fjord (860). He was mourned by all his people ; for 
there had been good crops during his reign, and he 
had been a wise ruler and much beloved. When it 
was rumored that he was to be buried in Ringerike, 
the men of Hadeland and of Raumarike came and 
demanded that the corpse be given to them for 
burial. For they believed that the favor of the gods 
would rest upon the district where the king's barrow 
was. At last they agreed to divide the body into 
four parts. The men of Ringerike kept the trunk; 
the head was buried at Skiringssal in Vestfold ; 
and the rest was divided between Hadeland and 
Hedemark. For a long time, sacrifices were made 
upon these barrows, and King Halfdan was wor- 
shipped as a god. 





CHAPTER y. 

HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED (860-930). 

Harold was only ten years old when his father 
died, and the kings whom Halfdan had conquered 
thought that the chance was now favorable for re- 
covering what they had lost. But Harold's guardian 
Guttorm, his mother's brother, conducted the gov- 
ernment with power and ability, and assisted his 
nephew in his efforts to put down his enemies. 
A long series of battles was fought in which Harold 
was usually victorious. It was but natural that the 
young king, flushed with success, should resolve to 
extend his domain. He knew that there was no 
king in Norway whose power and resources were 
equal to his own, and the determination to conquer 
the whole country may therefore have naturally 
ripened in his mind. Snorre, however, tells a 
different story, and as it is a very pretty one, it may 
be worth repeating. 

There was a maid named Gyda, the daughter of 
King Erik of Hordaland ; she was being fostered by 
a rich yeoman in Valders. When Harold heard of 
her beauty, he sent his men to her and asked her to 
become his mistress. The maid's eyes flashed with 
anger while she listened to this message, and throwing 

52 



HAROLD THE FAIRHATRED. 53 

her head back proudly she answered : '' Tell your 
master that I will not sacrifice my maidenly honor 
for a king who has only a few counties to rule over. 
Strange it seems to me that there is no king here 
who can conquer all Norway, as King Erik has con- 
quered Sweden and KingGorm Denmark," '^ 

The messengers, amazed at her insolence, warned 
her to give a more conciliatory answer. King Harold 
was surely good enough for her, they thought ; but 
she would not listen to them. When, at last, they 
took their leave, she followed them out and said : 

'' Give this message from me to King Harold. I 
will promise to become his wedded wife, on this 
condition, that he shall for my sake conquer all Nor- 
way, and rule over it as freely as King Erik rules 
over Sweden and King Gorm over Denmark. For 
only then can he be called the king of a people." f 

When the messengers returned, they advised the 
king to break the girl's pride by sending them to 
take her by force. But the king answered : " This 
maid has not spoken ill and does not deserve to be 
punished. On the contrary, she deserves much thanks 
for her words. She has put something into my mind, 
of which I wonder that it has not occurred to me 
before. But this I now solemnly vow, and call God 
to witness who made me and rules over all, that 
I will not cut or comb my hair until the day when I 
shall have conquered all Norway ; or if I do not, I 
shall die in the attempt." 

Guttorm praised Harold for these words, saying, 
that he had spoken like a king. 

* King Gorm had not at that time conquered Denmark. 
\ Tjodkonungr. 



54 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

In accordance with his promise, the young king 
now set about the task which he had undertaken. 
He went northward with an army and conquered 
Orkdale and Trondelag, the district about the Dront- 
heim Fjord. In Naumdale, north of Drontheim, 
there were two kings named Herlaug and Rollaug. 
The former, when he heard of Harold's march of 
conquest, built a great barrow, into which he entered 
with eleven of his men and had it closed behind him. 
Rollaug, his brother, ordered his royal high-seat to 
be carried to the top of a hill, and an earl's seat to 
be placed below, at the foot of the hill. He seated 
himself in the royal seat, but when he saw Harold 
approaching, he rolled from the king's seat into the 
earl's seat, thereby declaring himself to be King 
Harold's vassal. Harold tied a sword about his 
waist, hung a shield about his neck, and made him 
Earl of Naumdale. 

Wherever he went, Harold pursued the same 
policy. The old kings who acknowledged his over- 
lordship he reinstated as his earls in their former 
dominions. Those who opposed him be killed or 
maimed. The earls were really governors or repre- 
sentatives of the king's authority. They adminis- 
tered justice in the king's name, and collected taxes, 
of which they were entitled to keep one third on con- 
dition of entertaining sixty warriors, subject to the 
king's command. Each earl had under him four or 
more hersir (sub-vassals), who held in fief a royal 
estate, of an income of twenty marks, on condition 
of keeping twenty warriors ready to serve the king. 
It will be seen that the feudal principle was the 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 55 

basis of Harold's state. He deprived the peasants of 
their allodium, and declared all land to be the prop- 
erty of the king. The cultivators of the soil, from 
having been free proprietors, became the tenants of 
the king, and in so far as they were permitted to 
retain their inherited estates, derived this privilege 
no more from allodial but from feudal right. It 
followed that the king could levy a tax on all land, 
and that every man who refused to pay the tax 
forfeited his title. Also a personal tax, which the 
peasants derisively called the nose-tax (because it was 
levied in every household according to the num- 
ber of noses), is said to have been exacted by Harold, 
and to have caused much dissatisfaction. It is added 
that many of the former kings who accepted earl- 
doms from him, found themselves in a better pos- 
sition, both financially and as to authority, than they 
had been before. And this is scarcely to be won- 
dered at. Their royal title had conferred upon them 
no rights except such as their people voluntarily 
conceded to them, and their chief privilege amount- 
ed to a usage rather than a right to assume command 
in war, and conduct the public sacrifices. Still it was 
only in rare cases that they were willing to exchange 
this shadowy authority for the real power which 
Harold, by right of conquest, conferred upon them. 
A still greater antagonism did the introduction of 
the feudal land tenure arouse among the free yeo- 
manry, who in their fierce independence could not 
endure any relation of enforced obedience and 
subordination. Therefore rebellions against the royal 
authority, on a smaller or greater scale, were of con- 



56 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

stant occurrence during the first half of Harold's reign, 
and there are even indications that they continued 
much longer. Many of his provinces he had to con- 
quer twice, and it was only the enormous odds in his 
favor, and the promptness and severity of his punish- 
ments, which at length forced the disloyal to accept 
his sway. It required an energy and resolution such 
as his to make a nation of all these scattered, preda- 
tory, and often mutually hostile tribes ; and his uniform 
and systematic policy, as well as his uncompro- 
mising sternness, in dealing with resistance, show that 
he was fully conscious of the magnitude of his task. 

It would be tedious to enumerate the battles he 
fought and the victories he won. With every year 
that passed he approached nearer to his goal — to be 
the ruler of all Norway. Many of the mightiest men 
in the land who had hitherto held aloof now offered 
him their services, and were glad to accept honors at 
his hands. Among these were the earl Haakon Grjot- 
gardsson of Haalogaland, and Ragnvald, late earl of 
More, who was the father of Duke Rollo of Nor- 
mandy, and through William the Conqueror the 
ancestor of the kings of England. Ragnvald was a 
brave and sagacious man, who assisted the king with 
counsel and with deeds, and became his most inti- 
mate friend and adviser. 

Less readily did the men of the great Rafnista 
family accept Harold's overtures. Kveld-Ulf (Night- 
Wolf) pleaded old age, when the king sent messen- 
gers to him, requesting him to enter his service. 
This was the more disappointing to Harold, because 
he had counted on Kveld-Ulf's using the great influ- 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 57 

ence which he wielded, in his favor. He sent mes- 
sengers once more and offered Kveld-Ulf's son, Bald 
Grim, high dignities if he would become his vassal. 
But Bald Grim replied that he would accept no 
dignity which would raise him in rank above his 
father. Then the king's patience was exhausted, and 
he would have resorted to other arguments than 
verbal ones, if Kveld-Ulf's brother-in-law, Oelve 
Nuva, had not interceded in his behalf. Oelve finally 
obtained the old chieftain's consent to have his 
second son Thorolf enter the king's service if he saw 
fit. Thorolf was then out on a viking cruise with 
Oelve's brother, Eyvind Lambe, but he was expected 
home in the autumn. On their return, both ac- 
cepted Harold's offer and became his men. Thorolf 
particularly rose rapidly in the king's favor, on ac- 
count of his intelligence, beauty, and courtly man- 
ners. The old Kveld-Ulf, however, looked with 
suspicion upon their friendship, and hinted that he 
expected that nothing good would come of it. 

The kings of Sweden had from of old had claims 
on that part of Norway which is called Viken."^ Also 
Vermeland, which since the the days of Olaf the 
Woodcutter had belonged to the Ynglings, was 
declared to be an integral part of Sweden, and 
the Swedish king, Erik Eimundsson, seized the 
opportunity, while Harold was occupied with his 
conquests in the north, to invade the latter prov- 
ince, besides Ranrike and portions of Vingulmark. 

*Viken was the country about the present Christiania Fjord, and 
was divided into Vestfold, Vingulmark, and Ranrike' (the present Bo- 
huslen in Sweden). 



$8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

When these tidings reached Harold, he hastened 
southward, fined and punished those of the peas- 
ants who had promised allegiance to his enemy, 
and finally went northward to Vermeland where, 
by a singular coincidence, he met the Swedish king 
at a great feast given by the mighty yeoman Aake. 
Probably to avoid bloodshed, the two kings and their 
warriors were entertained in separate buildings; 
but while Harold and his men were lodged in the 
new mansion and made to eat and drink out of new 
horns and precious dishes, Erik's party were made to 
enjoy their cheer in an old building, and their horns 
and dishes, though artfully wrought, were not new. 
When the time came for leaving, Aake brought his 
son to Harold and begged him to take him into his 
service. At this Erik grew very wroth and rode 
away. Aake hastened to accompany him ; and when 
asked why he had made such a difference in the 
entertainment, he replied that it was because Erik 
was old, while Harold was young. 

*' Thou must indeed remember that thou art my 
man," said King Erik. 

'' When thou sayest that I am thy man," answered 
the yeoman, " then I may say with equal right that 
thou art my man." 

This answer so angered the king that he drew his 
sword and killed Aake. Harold, when he heard of 
his death, pursued his slayer but did not succeed 
in overtaking him. 

The princes and chieftains who had opposed 
Harold had, so far, accomplished nothing but their 
own ruin. Those who still retained their lands con- 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED, 59 

eluded that separately they could never hope to pre- 
vail against him, and they therefore united and met 
the conqueror in 872 with a great fleet in the Hafrs- 
Fjord.* The war-horns were blown, and King Har- 
old's ship was foremost, wherever the fight was 
hottest. In its prow stood Thorolf, the son of Kveld- 
Ulf, who fought with splendid bravery, and the 
brothers Oelve Nuva and Eyvind Lambe. The 
issue seemed long doubtful, and many of the king's 
best men were slain ; spears and stones rained down 
in showers, and the arrows flew hissing through the 
air. At last, Harold's berserks, seized with a wild 
fury, stormed forward, and boarded the enemies' 
ships. The carnage was terrible, and one by one 
the chieftains fell or fled. King Harold here won 
(as the sagas relate) one of the greatest battles that 
was ever fought in Norway; and there was from this 
day no longer any formidable opposition to him. 
Among the many who were wounded at Hafrs-Fjord 
was Thorolf, and in fact all who had stood before 
the mast in the king's ship, except the berserks. The 
scald Thorbjorn Hornklove made a song about the 
victory, fragments of which are still extant. 

At a feast which shortly after the battle was given 
in his honor, Harold's hair was cut by Ragnvald, the 
earl of More, and all marvelled at its beauty. While 
he had formerly been called Harold Lufa, i. e,, the 
Frowsy-headed, he was now named Harold the Fair-' 
haired. Having now accomplished what he had set 
out to do, he married Gyda. The romance is, how- 

* Hafrs-Fjord is a little fjord in Jaederen, west of the present city 
of Stavanger 



6o THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

ever, spoiled by the fact that he had some years be- 
fore married Aasa, the daughter of the earl, Haakon * 
Grjotgardsson, and had by her three sons — Halfdan 
the White, Halfdan the Swarthy, and Sigfrid. The 
sons Gyda bore him were named Guttorm, Haarek, 
and Gudrod. 

In his relations with men Harold was no more 
faithful than in his relations with women. He was 
a man of indomitable will and courage, sagacious 
and far-seeing; shunning no means for the accom- 
plishment of his ends. He could not, however, en- 
dure the characteristics in others which he valued in 
himself. When his jealousy was once aroused, it 
was not easily again allayed. As is the manner of 
tyrants, he was apt to humiliate those the most whom 
he had most exalted, and his suspicion often fell 
upon those who least deserved it. The first victim 
of his jealousy was Thorolf, the son of Kveld-Ulf, 
who, after the battle of Hafrs-Fjord, had stood es- 
pecially high in his favor. 

Thorolf had by a wealthy marriage and by inheri- 
tance accumulated a large fortune and lived in 
princely style. His liberality and winning exterior 
made him hosts of friends, and his thrift and ability 
procured him the means to practise a magnificent 
hospitality. The king had made him his syssclmand, 
or bailiff, in Haalogaland, and Thorolf particularly 
distinguished himself by the energy and shrewdness 

* The letter aa in Norwegian (Icelandic a) is pronounced like the 
English aw in hawk. Haakon is therefore pronounced Hawkon ; 
Aasa, Awsa, etc. The modern Icelanders pronounce the sound like 
ou in out^ rout. They say Houkon, Hourek, etc. 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 6 1 

which he displayed in collecting the tax from the 
Finns, who, as a rule, were not anxious to make con- 
tributions to the royal treasury. During a journey 
which Harold made through Haalogaland, Thorolf 
made a feast for him, the splendor of which had 
never been equalled in those parts of the country. 
There were in all eight hundred guests — five hun- 
dred of whom Thorolf had invited, while three hun- 
dred were the attendants of the king. To the aston- 
ishment of his host, Harold sat, dark and silent, in 
the high-seat, and seemed ill-pleased with the efforts 
that were made to entertain him. Toward the end 
of the feast he repressed his ill-humor, however, and 
when his host at parting presented him with a large 
dragon-ship with complete equipment, he seemed 
much pleased. Nevertheless, it was not long be- 
fore he deprived him of his office as royal bailiff, 
then espoused the cause of his enemies, and used all 
sorts of contemptible slanders as a pretext for attack- 
ing him on his estate, Sandness, g.nd burning his 
house. When Thorolf broke out through the burn- 
ing wall, he was received with a hail-storm of spears. 
Seeing the king he rushed toward him, with 
drawn sword, and cut down his banner-bearer ; then, 
when his foe was almost within reach of his sword, 
fell, crying: " By three steps only I failed." It was 
said that Harold himself gave him his death-wound, 
and he later avowed himself as his slayer to the old 
Kveld-Ulf. When he saw his former friend lying 
dead at his feet, he looked sadly at him ; and when 
a man passed him who was busy bandaging a slight 
wound, he said: ''That wound Thorolf did not give 



62 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. 

thee ; for differently did weapons bite in his hands. 
It is a great pity that such men must perish." 

When Kveld-Ulf heard of his son's death, his grief 
was so great that he had to go to bed. But when 
he heard that it was the king who had slain him, and 
that he had fallen prone at his slayer's feet, he got up 
and was well content. For when a dying man fell 
on his face, it was a sign that he would be avenged. 
In the meanwhile, being far from powerful enough 
to attack Harold openly, the old man gathered all 
his family and his goods and set out for Iceland ; but 
lingered long along the coast of Norway, in the hope 
of finding some one of Harold's race upon whom he 
could wreak vengeance. In this he was successful. 
The two sons of Guttorm, Harold's uncle and for- 
mer guardian, were sailing northward with two of 
the king's men. These Bald Grim and Kveld-Ulf 
attacked, killed the king's cousins, and captured the 
ship. Then, wild with exultation. Bald Grim 
mounted the prow and sang : 

Now is the Hersir's vengeance 
On the king fulfilled. 
Wolf and eagle tread on 
Yngling's children. 
Seaward swept flew Halvard's 
Lacerated corpse, 
And the eagle's beak 
Tears Snarfare's wounds. 

From that time forth, there was a blood-feud be- 
tween the Yngling race and Kveld-Ulf's descendants, 
and the famous saga of Egil, Bald Grim's son, tells 
of a long chain of bloody deeds which all had their 
origin in the king's treachery to Thorolf. 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 63 

Kveld-Ulf and Bald Grim were not the only chief- 
tains who sought refuge abroad from Harold's op- 
pression. After the battle of Hafrs-Fjord, when the 
king proceeded with uncompromising rigor to en- 
force the feudal system, several thousand men, 
many of whom belonged to the noblest families of 
the land, crossed the sea, and found new homes in 
the Orkneys and the Hebrides, whence again many 
found their way to Iceland. A great number also 
sailed direct for the latter country, and the so-called 
Landnama book (the Domesday Book of Iceland) 
has preserved the names, and, at times, bits of the 
history of the most important original settlers. 
Much as we may sympathize with the indomitable 
spirit which made these men sacrifice home and 
country for a principle, there is also another view of 
the case which has to be considered. Harold the 
Fairhaired was founding a state, which would sup- 
port a higher civilization than could possibly be 
developed among a loose agglomeration of semi- 
hostile tribes. The idea of a national unity, which 
was the inspiration of his work, required the enforce- 
ment of an organic system which to the indepen- 
dent chieftains must have appeared extremely op- 
pressive. The payment of taxes, which to the 
citizen of the modern state is not apt to appear 
humiliating, seemed to the Norse chieftains un- 
worthy of a freeman. When Harold commanded 
them to refrain from robbing and plundering expe- 
ditions within the confines of his kingdom, they felt 
outraged, and could see no reason why they should 
submit to such unwarrantable curtailment of time- 



64 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

honored privileges. One of them, Rolf, or RoUo, 
son of the king's friend, Ragnvald, Earl of More, de- 
fied the order, made strand-hug^ in Viken, and was 
declared an outlaw. Neither his father's influence, 
nor his mother's prayers, could save him. Just on 
account of his high birth, Harold was determined to 
make an example of him. 

!.„ Rollo is known in the Norse sagas as Rolf the 

Walker, because he was so tall and heavy that no 
horse could carry him. With a large number of fol- 
lowers he sailed southward to France, and after 
having harried the country for several years, made in 
912 a compromise with King Charles the Simple, by 
which he was to accept Christianity and receive a large 
province in fief for himself and his descendants. 
This province was named Normandy ; and has played 
a large role in the history of the world. It is told of 
Rollo that when he was requested to kiss the king's 
foot in token of fealty, he answered : '' I will never 
bend my knee before any man ; nor will I kiss any 
one's foot." After much persuasion, however, he 
permitted one of his men to perform the act of 
homage for him. His proxy stalked sullenly forward, 
and pausing before the king, who was on horse-back, 
seized his foot and lifted it to his lips. By this 
manoeuvre, the king came to make a somersault, at 
which there was great laughter among the Norsemen. 
Rollo did literally, like the poor boy in the fairy tale, 
marry the princess and get half the kingdom. For, it 

* Strand-hug was an enforced provisioning of the viking fleet from 
the nearest inhabited country. It was the common practice of 
vikings to make strand-hug, wherever they might happen to be. 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 65 

is told, that Charles gave him for a bride his daugh- 
ter Gisla, who, however, died childless. He ruled his 
duchy with a rod of iron ; and he must have learned 
a useful lesson from King Harold, for it is said that he 
restrained robbery with a firm hand, and hanged the 
robbers. So great was the public security in his day, 
that the peasants could leave their ploughs and tools 
in the field over night without fear of losing them. 
Rollo's son was William Longsword, who was the 
father of Richard the Fearless, who again had a son 
of his own name. This latter Richard, surnamed 
the Good, had a son named Rollo, or Robert *^ the 
Magnificent, who was the father of William the Con- 
queror. 

The emigration of the discontented yeomen and 
chieftains removed the last obstacle to the organiza- 
tion of Harold's feudal state. According to an ap- 
proximately accurate calculation, about eight hundred 
heads of families went with their households to Ice- 
land, to the Scottish isles, and to Jemteland, leaving 
behind them estates which were promptly confiscated 
by the king. Those who endeavored to sell their lands 
met with small success ; for to buy the property of em- 
igrants was considered as an act hostile to the king. 
Great wealth was thus accumulated in Harold's hands, 
and the means of rewarding his friends at the expense 
of his enemies were at his disposal. The emigrants 
were, therefore, doubly instrumental in cementing 
the state which they had endeavored to destroy. A 
large number of ofHcials were needed to superintend 

* The first Duke Rollo had, when he was baptized, assumed the 
name Robert. 



66 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the great landed estates, and Harold chose these 
from his immediate dependents. The so-called 
Aarmaend were merely superintendents or stewards, 
who took charge of the crown lands, and forwarded 
to the king his share of the income. They were 
often thralls or freedmen, and were looked down 
upon by the yeomanry as their inferiors. The earls, 
on the other hand, who belonged to the old tribal 
aristocracy, held their land in fief, and were, in a 
limited sense, proprietors, though their sons could 
not, by any absolute right, claim to inherit them. It 
was, however, the custom to continue such estates 
from father to son. The third class of property was 
the land which the yeomanry had formerly held by 
allodial right, and which they now held with as much 
security and right of inheritance, as the king's nomi- 
nal tenants. As long as they paid their taxes, it was 
of course in the king's interest to leave them unmo- 
lested. 

It was natural that with his great wealth Harold 
should keep a court of exceptional splendor. He 
was fond of song and story and always kept scalds 
about him who sang his praise and glorified his 
deeds. He could be generous when the occasion 
demanded, and would then scatter his gold with 
royal liberality. But in little things he was reputed 
to be mean ; and it was a common complaint among 
his courtiers that they did not get enough to eat. 
Some legends recounted by Snorre show that with 
all his stern inflexibility toward men, he was easily 
deceived by women. Thus, it is related that once, 
while he was at a Yule-tide feast, in Guldbrandsdale, 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 6/ 

a Finn came to him and persuaded him to accom- 
pany him to his tent. There he showed the king a 
girl named Snefrid, whose beauty made a great im- 
pression upon him. He chatted with her for a 
while ; then drank a goblet of mead which the Finn 
brought him. No sooner had he swallowed the 
liquid than he became so enamoured of Snefrid that 
he refused to leave her, and demanded that she 
should that very day become his wife. He loved 
her with such abandonment and passion that he 
neglected the government and lived only for her. 
She bore him five sons in rapid succession, and then 
died. Harold's grief knew no bounds. He refused 
to have her buried, but sat staring at her beautiful 
corpse, night and day. For, oddly enough, it is told 
that Snefrid's beauty remained unchanged after 
death, and there was no sign of decay. All the 
king's men feared that he had lost his reason, and 
one of them finally persuaded him, on some pretext, 
to have the corpse moved. But the very instant it 
was touched, the most hideous change occurred. 
The flesh turned blue, and a terrible stench filled 
the room. The king then recovered his reason, and 
ordered the body to be burned. But when it was 
placed on the pyre, snakes, adders, toads, and horri- 
ble creeping things teemed in and about it, so that 
no one could endure the sight of it. Then Harold 
comprehended that he had been the victim of sor- 
cery ; and he grew so angry that he chased away 
from him the children Snefrid had borne him. And 
yet, strangely enough, it was this branch which en- 
dured the longest, and from which a long line of 



68 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 

kings descended. The names of Snefrid's sons were 
Sigurd Rise (Giant), Gudrod Ljome, Halfdan Haalegg 
(Longlegs), and Ragnvald Rettilbeine. 

The only one of King Harold's wives who was of 
royal birth was Ragnhild, the daughter of King Erik 
the Younger in South Jutland. She replied, when he 
first sent messengers to woo her, that she would not 
marry the mightiest king in all the world, if she had 
to put up with one thirtieth part of his affection. To 
a second message she replied that she would marry 
King Harold if he would put away all his other 
wives. This he consented to do, and made Ragnhild 
his queen. She lived, however, only three years 
after her marriage ; and Harold then took back 
several of his former wives and mistresses. Ragnhild 
had left him one son, Erik, whom he loved the most 
of all his children. 

Marriage was entirely a civil contract during the 
days of Germanic paganism and was in no wise 
associated with religion or religious ceremonies. It 
was an easy thing for a husband to obtain a divorce 
from his wife, but it was customary to go through 
with this formality before marrying a second. Open 
polygamy, as practised by Harold, was contrary to 
custom and must have been regarded with reproba- 
tion by the people. For all that, Harold was, during 
the latter part of his reign, a popular ruler and well 
beloved both by yeomanry and chieftains. 

As his children grew up, Harold began to reap 
some of the disadvantages of his scattered family re- 
lations. His sons, having different mothers, and 
having been fostered by yeomen in different parts of 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIRED. 69 

the country, could scarcely be strongly conscious of 
their kinship. They were jealous of each other, 
and particularly jealous of the mighty earls who sat 
like little kings upon their estates ruling over land 
and people. It was to give vent to this feeling that 
Halfdan Longlegs and Gudrod Ljome, without any 
warning, attacked Ragnvald, the Earl of More, and 
burned him up with sixty of his men. When Harold 
heard of this dastardly deed, he gathered an army 
and resolved to punish his sons. Gudrod, who had 
taken possession of the earldom after Ragnvald, sur- 
rendered without fighting, while Halfdan Longlegs 
sailed with three ships for the Orkneys, where he 
chased away Turf-Einar, the son of the Earl of 
More, and made himself king of the islands. Turf- 
Einar returned, however, surprised Halfdan, and put 
him to death in a barbarous manner. Although 
Halfdan had been a rebel against the king's author- 
ity, and Turf-Einar in slaying him had avenged his 
own father, Harold had no choice but to wreak 
vengeance upon the slayer of his son. He accord- 
ingly sailed with a fleet for the Orkneys, opened 
negotiations with Turf-Einar, and accepted as '' blood- 
atonement " sixty marks in gold. Whether it was 
on the same occasion that he made a cruise to 
Scotland, harrying the coast, is perhaps, doubtful. 
His chief purpose, as on a previous cruise in the 
same waters, was to break up the various nests of 
vikings, who from this convenient retreat made fre- 
quent attacks upon the coast of Norway during the 
summer months. 

A fertile cause of disagreement among Harold's 



70 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

sons was their jealousy of Erik, whom their father 
conspicuously favored. When he was twelve years 
old, Erik was given five ships to command, and 
with a choice crew went on viking cruises. Much 
did the old king delight in hearing the tales of his 
prowess, and the daring enterprises in which he had 
played a part. The ominous surname '' Blod-Oexe " 
(Blood-Axe) which the lad acquired by his deeds in 
battle only endeared him the more to his father. It 
was his lOve of this favorite son which induced him in 
his fiftieth year (900) to commit an act, whereby he 
virtually undid the great work of his life and brought 
misery upon unborn generations. He called a tiling 
or general assembly of the people, probably at Eids- 
vold, and made all his sons kings, on condition that 
they should, after his death, acknowledge Erik as 
their overlord. To each he gave a province to govern, 
permitting him to keep one third of the revenues 
for himself, leaving one third for the earls, and send- 
ing one third to the sovereign. The royal title 
should be inherited by all his direct descendants in 
the male line, legitimate or illegitimate birth making 
no difference. To the sons of his daughters he gave 
earldoms. In this disastrous act of Harold, making 
no distinction between legitimate and illegitimate 
children, lies the germ of the civil wars and terrible 
internecine conflicts which ravaged the kingdom he 
had established and exhausted its powers, until for 
four hundred years it sank out of sight, and its name 
seemed to have been blotted out from among the 
nations. It seems incredible that the wisdom and 
energy which had built up a great state could be 



HAROLD THE FAIRHATRED. 7 1 

coupled with the unwisdom and the weakness which 
in the end broke it down again. Harold evidently 
looked upon the royal office as a piece of personal 
property which he had by his sword acquired, and 
which all his male descendants had an equal right to 
inherit. At the same time he must, after the ex- 
perience he had had with his sons, have known them 
too well to suppose that they would peacefully 
acquiesce in his decision, living together in fraternal 
unity. If he cherished any illusion, Erik lost no 
time in dispelling it. He first killed Ragnvald Ret- 
tilbeine, the son of Snefrid, because he was said to 
be a sorcerer. Next he attacked his brother Bjorn 
the Merchant (Farmand) because he declined to pay 
him tribute, killed him and plundered his house. Half- 
dan the Swarthy (Svarte) in Drontheim resolved to 
avenge this outrage, concluding that none of Harold's 
sons were safe, as long as Erik was permitted, with 
impunity, to take the law into his own hands. While 
Erik was feasting at the farm, Selven, Halfdan 
surrounded the house and set fire to it. Erik suc- 
ceeded in escaping with four men, and he hastened 
southward to complain to his father. King Harold, 
it is told, was greatly incensed, collected his fleet and 
sailed to Drontheim, where Halfdan, though with an 
inferior force, stood ready to meet him. The battle 
was about to begin, when the scald, Guttorm Sindre, 
reminded the two kings of a promise they had made 
him. Once he had sung a song in their honor, and 
as he refused all the gifts they offered him, they both 
swore that whatever he should ask of them, they 
would fulfil. '' Now," he said, ^' I have come to 
claim the guerdon of my song." 



72 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Hard as it was, they could not break their royal 
promise. Peace was made, and father and son sepa- 
rated. Halfdan was permitted to keep his province, 
but had to' vow solemnly that he would henceforth 
make no hostile demonstration against Erik. For 
all that the hatred between the two lasted, though 

curbed for a while by the 
fear of the king. 

When Harold was near- 
ly seventy years old, he 
took for his mistress 
Thora of Moster, who on 
account of her great height 
was surnamed Moster- 
stang (Moster-pole). She 
bore him a son who was 
named Haakon. Much 
dissatisfaction was there 
among the king's other 
sons when this late-comer 
m.ade his appearance, and 
he would probably not 
have grown to manhood, 
if an incident had not oc- 
curred which removed him beyond their reach. The 
story told by Snorrein this connection is full of inter- 
est, but sounds incredible. Once, it is told, messengers 
arrived from King Ethelstan in England, bringing a 
precious sword to King Harold, who accepted it and 
returned thanks. 

'' Now,'' said the messengers, '' thou hast taken 
the sword, as our king wished, and thou art therefore 
his sword-taker or vassal." 




GILT BUCKLE FOUND AT SKE- 
DEMO IN NEDENES AMT. 



HAROLD THE FAIRHAIKED. 73 

Harold was angry at having been thus tricked, but 
did not molest the messengers. The next year, how- 
ever, he sent his young son Haakon with an embassy 
to Ethelstan. They found the king in London, and 
were well received by him. The spokesman of the 
embassy then placed the boy, Haakon, on Ethel- 
stan's knee, saying, '^ King Harold begs thee to 
foster this child of his servant-maid." 

Ethelstan angrily drew his sword, as if he would 
kill the child ; but the spokesman said : " Now that 
thou hast once put him upon thy knee, thou mayst 
murder him, if it please thee ; but thereby hast thou 
not slain all King Harold's sons. 

To foster another man's child was in Norway re- 
garded as an acknowledgment of inferiority ; and 
Harold had thus repaid Ethelstan in his own coin. 
There are, however, several circumstances which 
make the story suspicious. In the first place Ethel- 
stan and his ancestors had had too severe an ex- 
perience of Norsemen and Danes to wish to challenge 
the mightiest of them by a wanton insult ; and again, 
it is more credible that Harold sent his youngest son 
out of the country for his own safety, ■^- than in order 
to play an undignified trick upon a foreign king. 
At all events, Haakon was treated with the greatest 
kindness by the English king, and won his affection. 

When Harold the Fairhaired was eighty years 
old, he felt no longer able to bear the burden of the 
government. He therefore led Erik to his royal 
high-seat, and abdicated in his favor. Three years 
later he died (933), after having ruled over Norway 
for seventy-three years. 

* See Munch, i., 591. 




CHAPTER VI. 



ERIK BLOOD-AXE (930-935). 



While Harold's despotism had been civilizing 
and, on the whole, beneficent, that of Erik Blood- 
Axe was disorganizing and destructive. With him 
the old turbulent viking spirit ascended the throne. 
Power meant with him the means of gratifying every 
savage impulse. Brave he was, delighting in battle ; 
cruel and pitiless ; and yet not without a certain 
sense of fairness and occasional impulses of gen- 
erosity. In person he was handsome, of stately 
presence, but haughty and taciturn. Unhappily he 
married a woman who weakened all that was good 
in him and strengthened all that was bad. Queen 
Gunhild possessed a baneful influence over him 
during his entire life. She was cruel, avaricious, and 
treacherous, and was popularly credited with all the 
ill deeds which her husband committed. There are 
strange legends about her, attributing to witchcraft 
the power she had over every one who came in con- 
tact with her. According to Snorre, Erik met her in 
Finmark, whither she had been sent by her parents 
to learn sorcery. For the Finns were in those days 
credited with a deep knowledge of the black art. 
The two sorcerers with whom she was staying were 

74 



ERIK BLOOD-AXE. 



75 



both determined to marry her, and like the princess 
in the fairy-tale, she concealed Prince Erik in her 




CYLINDRICAL MOUNTING OF BRONZE PROBABLY FOR THE SHAFT OF A 
SPEAR. FOUND NEAR STAVANGER. 

tent, and begged him to rid her of her troublesome 
suitors. This, in spite of many difficulties, Erik did, 
carried Gunhild away to his ships, and made her his 



76 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. 

wife. She was, it is said, small of stature, insinuat- 
ing, and of extraordinary beauty; but she was the 
evil genius of her husband, egging him on to deeds of 
treachery and violence which made him detested by his 
people. It was in great part the disfavor with which 
she was regarded which raised rebels against Erik's 
authority in various parts of the country and brought 
popular support to his brothers in their endeavor to 
cast off his yoke. In spite of his father's efforts, 
Erik's sovereignty had not been universally recog- 
nized, and no sooner was King Harold dead than 
Halfdan the Swarthy declared himself to be sover- 
eign in Trondelag and Olaf* in Viken. A few 
years after that, however, Halfdan died suddenly, 
and the rumor said that he had been poisoned by 
Queen Gunhild. The men of Trondelag then chose 
his brother Sigfrid for their king, and Erik found his 
kingdom gradually shrinking both from the north 
and the south. Being prepared for an attack from 
Erik, Sigfrid and Olaf determined to join their forces, 
and to complete all arrangements, the former went 
to visit the latter in Tunsberg. When Erik heard 
of this, he went in haste to the town with a large 
number of men, and surprised and killed both his 
brothers. Olaf's son Tryggve escaped, however, and 
was kept in concealment, as long as Erik was master 
in the land. 

Erik •had now killed four of his brothers, if not 
five, and it was the common opinion that Gunhild 
would not rest until she had exterminated all the 

* Olaf was the son of King Harold and Svanhild, a daughter of 
Earl Eystein of Hedemark and Vestfold. 



ERIK BLOOD-AXE. 7/ 

race of Harold the Fairhaired outside of her hus- 
band's Hne. V 

While Erik was a youth, he had made the acquaint- 
ance of an Icelander named Thorolf, the son of 
Skallagrim (Bald Grim) and nephew of Thorolf Kveld- 
Ulfs son, whom King Harold had treacherously 
slain. This Thorolf, like his uncle and namesake, 
was a tall and handsome man, of fine presence and 
winning manners. He had made Erik a present of 
a ship, very beautifully built and decorated, and had 
thereby gained his friendship. In return Erik had 
obtained from his father permission for Thorolf to 
remain unmolested in the country. The handsome 
Icelander made many friends in Norway, among 
whom two mighty men named Thore Herse and 
Bjorn the Yeoman. When he returned to Iceland 
he brought with him, as a gift from the king to his 
father, an axe with a handle of precious workmanship. 
But Bald Grim, though he received his son well, 
treated King Erik's gift with contempt, and finally, 
when Thorolf again made a cruise to Norway, he 
sang an insulting verse and begged to have it reported 
to Erik. The axe he also wished to have returned. 
Thorolf, who was determined not to revive the 
ancient feud, threw the axe into the ocean, and 
conveyed his father's thanks and greeting to the king. 
If he had had his way, the blood-feud would have 
been at an end. But he had a younger brother 
named Egil,* who insisted upon bearing him com- 
pany, and he soon fanned the dying embers into 
flame. 

* Pronounced Agil, " g " hard, as in gimlet, gilt, etc. 



78 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Egil was the very incarnation of the old untamable 
Nc^rse spirit, the turbulent and indomitable individu- 
alism, which is incapable of considering any but per- 
sonal aims, and of submitting to any kind of disci- 
pline. Like his father, Bald Grim, he was large of 
stature, swarthy, and ill-favored, and displayed in his 
childhood a fierce and revengeful spirit, but also a 
rare gift of song, which, no less than his foolhardy 
deeds, brought him fame during his long and adven- 
turous career. 

The two brothers arrived safely in Norway and 
became the guests of Thore Herse, between whose 
son Arinbjorn and Egil a warm friendship sprung 
up. While Thorolf went to be married to Aasgerd, 
the daughter of Bjorn the Yeoman, Egil was forced 
by a severe illness to remain at home. When he be- 
came convalescent, he accompanied one of Thore's 
overseers to a royal steward named Baard, and met 
there King Erik and Queen Gunhild. Baard, in 
his zeal to please the king, neglected the Icelander, 
and when the latter became unruly, at a hint from 
the queen, mixed soporific herbs in his beer. Egil's 
suspicion was aroused, however, and he poured out 
the beer and killed Baard. Then he ran for his life, 
swam out to an island in the fjord, and when the 
island was searched, killed some of those who had 
been sent to find him ; whereupon he made his es- 
cape in their boat. Although King Erik was very 
angry, he accepted the atonement in money which 
Thore Herse offered for Baard's death, and was per 
suaded to allow Egil to remain in the land. Queen 
Gunhild was much incensed at his forgiving spirit, 



ERIK BLOOD-AXE, 79 

and asked if he counted the slaying of Baard as 
naught ; to which the king repHed : '' For ever thou 
art egging me on to violence ; but my word, once 
given, I cannot break/' 

As no persuasions availed, Gunhild made up her 
mind to use some one else as the instrument of her 
retaliation. It is told that she had been fond of 
Baard, whom Egil had slain ; but as he was a man of 
low birth, it was scarcely this personal fondness, but 
rather a sense of outraged dignity which impelled 
her to persevere in her plans of vengeance. At a 
great sacrificial feast, at the temple of Gaule, she 
made her brother, Eyvind Skreyja, promise to kill 
one of Bald Grim's sons ; but as no chance pre- 
sented itself, he slew instead one of Thorolf's men ; 
in return for which he was outlawed by Erik, as a 
vargi' Iveuvi — i. e., wolf in the sanctuary. The two 
brothers now went on viking cruises, took service 
under Ethelstan, in England, and fought under his 
standard a great battle, in which Thorolf fell. Egil 
now married his widow, Aasgerd, and returned with 
her to Iceland. He had then been abroad for twelve 
years. Hardly had he settled down, however, when 
he learned that his father-in-law, Bjorn the Yeoman, 
was dead, and that one of Gunhild's favorites named 
Berg-Anund, had taken possession of his property. 
He therefore lost no time in returning to Norway, 
and with his friend Arinbjorn's aid pleaded his case 
at the Gulathing, in the presence of the king and 
queen. But the tJiing broke up in disorder, and 
Egil had to sail back to Iceland without having ac- 
complished his purpose. Considerations of pru- 



8o THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

dence had, however, no weight with him, and before 
long he started for the third time for Norway, sur- 
prised Berg-Anund, and killed not only him, but the 
king's son Ragnvald, who was his guest. In order 
to add insult to injury, he mounted a cliff, and raised 
what was called a shame-pole, or pole of dishonor, to 
Gunhild and the king. On the top of the pole he 
put the head of a dead horse, while he called out in 
a loud voice : '' This dishonor do I turn against all 
the land-spirits ^ that inhabit this land, so that they 
may all stray on wildering ways, and none of them 
may chance or hit upon his home, until they shall 
have chased King Erik and Gunhild from the land." 
Thereupon he cut these words, in runes, into the 
pole, and sailed back to Iceland. It seemed, too, as 
if the curse took effect. For when Erik had been 
four years upon the throne, his youngest brother, 
Haakon, landed in Trondelag, and the following year 
was made king. The news ran like wildfire through 
the country, and was everywhere received Avith jubi- 
lation. Erik made a desperate effort to raise an 
army, but the people turned away from him, and he 
was obliged to flee with his wife and children, and a 
few followers. Among those who remained faithful 
to him was Egil's friend, Arinbjorn. He now sailed 
about as a viking, harrying the coasts of Scotland and 
England, and finally accepted a portion of Northum- 
berland in fief from King Ethelstan, on condition 
of defending the country against Norse and Danish 
vikings. It was also stipulated that he should be 

* The land-spirits were ^^«z7 loci; the alliterative formula which 
Egil pronounced was supposed to have magic power, 



ERIK BLOOD-AXE. 8 1 

baptized and accept Christianity. Although the dif- 
ferent sagas which deal with Erik's later life give 
somewhat conflicting accounts, it is obvious that he 
was no more popular in England than he had been 
in Norway. It appears that he was once, or proba- 
bly twice, expelled from Northumberland, but again 
returned. By a most singular chance, a tempest here 
drove his mortal enemy right into his clutches. 

Egil, it is told, was restless and discontented at 
home ; and the common belief was that Gunhild 
by sorcery had stolen his peace of mind. He wan- 
dered uneasily along the strand and looked out for 
sails, and took no pleasure in his wife and children. 
Finally, when he could stay at home no longer, he 
equipped a ship and sailed southward to England. 
He was shipwrecked at the mouth of the Humber, 
lost his ship, but saved himself and his thirty war- 
riors. From people whom he met, he learned that 
Erik Blood-Axe ruled over the country ; and know- 
ing that there was slight chance of escape, he rode 
boldly into York and sought his friend Arinbjorn. 
Together they went to Erik, who inquired of Egil 
how he could be so foolish, as to expect any thing but 
death at his hands. Gunhild, when she saw him 
demanded impatiently, that he should be killed on 
the spot. She had thirsted so long for his blood ; 
she could not endure a moment's delay in her hotly- 
desired vengeance. Erik, however, granted the Ice- 
lander a respite until the next morning; Arinbjorn 
begged him, as a last bid for life, to spend the 
night in composing a song in honor of Erik. This 
Egil promised ; and Arinbjorn had food and drink 



82 THE ST OR V OF NOR WA Y. 

brought to him and bade him do his best. Being 
naturally anxious, he went to his friend in the night 
and asked him how the song was progressing. Egil 
replied that he had not been able to compose a line, 
because there was a swallow sitting in the window 
whose incessant screaming disturbed him, and he 
could not chase it away. Arinbjorn darted out into 
the hall, and caught a glimpse of a woman, who 
ran at the sight of him. At that very instant, too, 
the swallow disappeared. To prevent her from re- 
turning, Arinbjorn seated himself outside of Egil's 
door and kept watch through the night. For he 
knew that the swallow was none other than the 
queen, who by sorcery had assumed the guise of the 
bird. 

The next morning Egil had finished his song and 
committed it to memory. Arinbjorn now armed all 
his men, and v/ent with Egil and his warriors to the 
king's house. He reminded Erik of his fidelity to 
him, when others had forsaken him, and asked, as a 
reward for his services, that his friend's life be 
spared. Gunhild begged him to be silent ; and the 
king made no response. Then Arinbjorn stepped 
forward and declared that Egil should not die, until 
he and his last man were dead. 

" At that price," answered the king, " I would not 
willingly buy Egil's death, although, he has amply 
deserved whatever I may do to him." 

Suddenly, when the king had spoken, Egil began 
to recite with a clear, strong voice, and instantly 
there was silence in the hall. This is a portion of his 
song : 




IRON POINT OF A SPEAR WITH INLAID WORK OF SILVER, FOUND AT 
NESNE, IN NORDLAND. 



84 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Westward I sailed o'er the sea. 
Vidrar* himself gave me 
The ichor of his breast, f 
And with joy I roamed. 
As the ice-floes broke, \ 
Forth I launched the oak; || 
For my mind's hull § 
Of thy praise was full. 

For thy fame, O king. 
Made me fain to sing ; 
And to England's shore, 
Odin's mead ^ I bore. 
Lo, in Erik's praise, 
Loud my voice I raise. 
May my song resound 
The wide earth around. 

List to me, my king. 

Well remembering 

What I sing to thee 

Now, unquailingly. 

For the world knows well 

How men round thee fell ; 

Glad has Odin seen 

The field where thou hast been. 

Burst the shield and bayed 
Deep the battle-blade. 
At its ruddy draught 
The Valkyrias laughed.** 
Lo, the sword-stream swayed 
Like a wild cascade. 
O 'er the fields away 
Rang the steel's strong lay. 
*Odin. fThe gift of song. \ In the spring. || The ship. 

§ Literally : In my mind's ship {i. e., in my breast) bore I this 
draught of praise. ^ Odin's mead is the gift of poetry. 

** The maids of Odin, the choosers of the slain, the Valkyrias, 
had to keep watch of Erik, to receive the souls of the many whom he 
slew, and conduct them to Valhalla. 



ERIK BLOOD- AXE. 85 

Men with eager feet 
Sprang their foe to meet ; ' 
None thy band knew save 
Heroes true and brave. 
For in heart and frame 
Bright burned valor's flame ; 
'Neath their thund'ring tread 
Shook the earth with dread. 

'Mid the weapons' clank 
Men in death-throes sank : 
From the heaps of slain 
Rose thy fame amain. 

Erik sat immovable while Egil sang, watching 
his face narrowly. When the song was at an end, 
the king said : " The song is excellent, and I have 
now considered what I will do for Arinbjorn's sake. 
Thou, Egil, shalt depart hence unharmed ; because 
I will not do the dastardly deed to kill a man who 
gave himself voluntarily into my power. But from 
the moment thou leavest this hall, thou shalt never 
come before my eyes again, nor before the eyes of 
my sons. Nor is this to be regarded as a reconcilia- 
tion betw^een thee and me or my sons and kins- 
men." Thus Egil bought his head by his song, and 
the song is therefore called '^ Hofudlausn," or " The 
Ransom of the Head." 

Egil then took his leave, visited Ethelstan once 
more ; went to Norway and had many adventures, 
before he returned to Iceland, where he died between 
990 and 995. He was then over ninety years old."^ 
Another of his poems, called Sonartorek, " The Loss 
of the Son," is the most beautiful poem in the 
Icelandic language. 

* His life is minutely related in Saga Egils Skallagrims-sonar. 



86 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Erik Blood-Axe remained in England and suffered 
many vicissitudes of fate, until he fell in battle in 950 
or 954, He is repeatedly mentioned by the English 
chroniclers under the name of Erik Haroldson. 
After his death Gunhild had a draapa composed in 
his honor, an interesting fragment of which is still 
extant. She then went to Denmark with her $ons, 
and was well received by the Danish king, Harold 
Bluetooth (Blaatand), the son of Gorm the Old. 




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CHAPTER VII. 

HAAKON THE GOOD (93 5-96 1 ). 

Haakon, though he was outwardly his father's 
image, did not resemble him in spirit. He was of a 
conciliatory nature, amiable, and endowed with a 
charm of manner which won him all hearts. It is 
said that his foster-father had given him the counsel 
at parting never to sit glum at the festal board, and 
it is obvious that he took the lesson to heart. When 
he landed in Trondelag, people flocked about him, 
and he won the chieftains for his cause by friendli- 
ness and promises which he afterwards conscien- 
tiously kept. He took part in the games of the 
young, and in the serious discussions of the old, 
excelled in all manly sports, and won admiration no 
less by his beauty than by his intelligence and 
generous disposition. The rumor of his arrival 
spread like fire in withered grass, and people said 
that old King Harold had come back once more to 
his people, gentler and more generous than before, 
but no less mighty and beautiful. 

The first chieftain whose influence Haakon sought 
to enlist in his behalf was the powerful Sigurd, Earl 
of Hlade, who had been the friend and protector of 
his mother, and the guardian of his infancy. The 

87 



88 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA V. 

earl received him well, and promised to support 
his claims to the kingdom. With this view he called, 
in Haakon's name, a great meeting of the peasants 
in Trondelag, and made a speech in which he de- 
nounced the cruelty of Erik Blood-Axe and declared 
his allegiance to Haakon. When the earl had 
finished, Haakon arose and offered, in case the 
peasants would make him their king, to restore to 
them their allodium, of which his father had de- 
prived them. This announcement was received with 
great rejoicing ; and from all parts of the plain came 
cries of homage and approval. Amid joyful tumult 
Haakon was made king, and immediately started 
southward with a large train of warriors. Wherever 
he went, the people flocked about him and offered 
him allegiance. The Oplands * followed the example 
of Trondelag, and in Viken both chieftains and 
peasants eagerly espoused his cause. As already 
related, Erik made a desperate attempt to gather an 
army, and, failing in this, fled with his family and a 
few faithful followers to the Orkneys, and thence to 
England. 

It was consistent with Haakon's conciliatory dis- 
position that he did not molest or depose his 
nephews, Gudrod Bjornsson and Tryggve Olafsson, 
but confirmed them as kings in Viken. It appears, 
however, that, nominally at least, they recognized 
his overlordship. Other sons and grandsons of 
Harold the Fairhaired he met with the same friend- 
liness, giving to each what he considered to be his 
due. As soon as peace was thus established, and 
* See map. 



HAAKON THE GOOD. 



89 



there was no one left to 
dispute his power, Haakon 
devoted himself energeti- 
cally to the improvement 
of the internal administra- 
tion of his kingdom. He 
divided the country into 
Tiling-Unions, or judicial 
districts, and by the aid 
of wise and experienced 
men greatly improved the laws. One 
famous code, called the Gulathings- 
law, has particularly shed lustre upon 
his name, and the enlargement and 
improvement of the Frostathings-law 
is also, by some of the sagas, attrib- 
uted to him. The only radical change 
which he introduced was the break- 
ing up of his father's feudal state, by 
the restoration of the allodium to the 
peasants. But this one change neces- 
sitated many others. When the king 
relinquished his right to tax the land, 
he thereby deprived himself of the 
ability to keep an army, and had to 
consign, in part, to the peasants 
themselves the defence of their re- 
spective districts. It was naturally 
the sea-coast which was most exposed 
to attack; and in the ab- 
sence of all but the most frying pan of bronze with 
primitive means of com- i^on handle, from the viking 




go THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

munication it became possible for an enemy to 
ravage long stretches of land, before the intelli- 
gence of his presence reached the king. In order to 
remedy this, Haakon ordered varder or signal-fires 
to be lighted, at fixed intervals, all along the coast at 
the approach of an enemy ; but he partly counter- 
acted the good effect of the reform by the severe 
punishment with which he threatened those who, 
without adequate cause, lighted the varder. In 
order to obtain the means to defend the coast, he 
divided it into marine districts, each of which was 
bound, on demand, to place a fully manned and 
equipped ship of war at the disposal of the king. 
This was, of course, but another form of taxation, 
but was less distasteful to the peasants, because its 
purpose and necessity were obvious, and no degrad- 
ing dependence was implied, since the people had 
again become the free possessors of the soil. Never- 
theless there are indications that the personal tax, 
derisively called the nose-tax, which had been intro- 
duced by Harold, was continued, at least for a while, 
by Haakon ; as it is expressly stated that his first 
ships of war were built by the income of the nose-tax. 
Having arranged the military and judicial affairs 
of his kingdom, Haakon turned his attention to a 
matter which he had long had at heart. He had 
been christened in his childhood in England, and 
was an earnest votary of the Christian religion. But, 
coming, as he did, to the kingdom of his father, not 
as a conqueror, but as a candidate for the people's 
favor, he did not venture at once to attack the 
national faith. His friend, Earl Sigurd of Hlade, 



HAAKON THE GOOD. 



was a fanatical adherent of the Asa-faith, and Haakon 
might have counted on his enmity rather than his 
support, if he had exhibited an ill-considered zeal for 
the displacement of the old by 
a new religion. Haakon, there- 
fore, temporized, and it was 
not until the fifteenth or six- 
teenth year of his reign (950- 
95 1), when his unbonded popu- 
larity seemed to warrant any 
venture, that he took a deci- 
sive step in behalf of Christianity. 
He sent to England for a bishop and 
a number of priests, and published a 
decree, forbidding the people to sac- 
rifice to the old gods, and demanding 
of them that they should accept the 
faith in Christ. He called upon the 
peasants to meet him at Drontheim, 
where he repeated his demand. But 
the peasants refused to declare them- 
selves; and begged the king to have 
the matter legally settled at the 
Frosta-tJmig. Here there was a great 
concourse of people ; and when the 
assembly had been called to order, 
Haakon rose and in an earnest and 
dignified speech begged the 
peasants to forsake the old 
heathen gods who were but 

wood and stone, and to believe in the one living God 
and be baptized in His name. An ominous murmur 







BREAST - PIN OF BRONZE. 
FOUND AT BY IN LOITEN. 



92 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

ran through the crowd at these words, and the peas- 
ant Aasbjorn of Medalhus arose and answered in 
these words : 

" When thou, King Haakon, didst call thy first 
assembly here in Drontheim, and we took thee for 
our king, we believed that heaven itself had de- 
scended upon us ; but now we do not know whether 
it was liberty we gained, or whether thou wishest to 
make us thralls once more, by thy strange demand 
that we shall forsake the faith which our fathers and 
all their forefathers have had before us. * * * 
They were sturdier men than we are ; and yet their 
faith has done well enough for us. We have learned 
to love thee well, and we have allowed thee to share 
with us the administration of law and justice. Now, 
we peasants have firmly determined and unanimously 
agreed to keep the laws which thou didst propose 
here at the Frosta-thing, and to which we gave our 
assent. We all wish to follow thee, and to have thee 
for our king, as long as a single one of us peasants is 
alive — if only thou, king, wilt show moderation, and 
not demand of us things in which we cannot follow 
thee, and which it would be unseemly for us to do. 
But if thou hast this matter so deeply at heart that 
thou wilt try thy might and strength against ours, 
then we have resolved to part from thee and take 
another chieftain who will aid us in freely exercising 
the religion which pleases us. Choose now, O king, 
between these two conditions, before the assembly 
has dispersed." 

Loud shouts of approval greeted this speech ; and 
it was, for a while, impossible for any one to make 



HAAKON THE GOOD. 



93 



himself heard. At last, when the tempest had sub- 
sided, Earl Sigurd of Hlade, probably after consulta- 




OVAL BRONZE BUCKLE. 



tion with Haakon, rose and said that the king would 
yield to the wishes of the peasants and would not 
part with their friendship. Encouraged by this first 



94 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

concession, the peasants now demanded that the 
king should participate in their sacrifices and preside 
at the sacrificial feast. Much against his will, Haakon 
was again induced to yield, but tried to pacify his 
conscience by making the sign of the cross over the 
horn consecrated to Odin. During the following 
year he was also compelled to eat horse-flesh at the 
Yule-tide sacrifice, and to omit the sign of the cross 
when drinking the toasts of the heathen gods. Full 
of wrath be departed, intimating that he would soon 
come back with an army large enough to punish 
the Tronders for the humiliation they had put upon 
him. There is little doubt that he would have car- 
ried out this threat, if external enemies had not 
directed his energies in another direction. 

The sons of Erik Blood-Axe had, after their father's 
death, sought refuge with King Harold Bluetooth in 
Denmark. The two elder, Gamle and Guttorm, had 
roamed about as vikings, ravaged the coasts of 
Norway and the lands about the Baltic, while the 
third son, Harold, was adopted by his namesake, the 
Danish king, and received his education at his court. 
They were all valiant warriors, but were much gov- 
erned by their shrewd and cruel mother, Gunhild. 
They naturally cherished no good-will toward their 
uncle Haakon, who had dispossessed them of their 
kingdom ; and wbile they were not yet strong 
enough to wage regular war, they seized every op- 
portunity to annoy and harass him. They fought 
many battles with Tryggve Olafsson, who, as king in 
Viken, was charged with the defence of the southern 
coast, and were sometimes victorious and sometimes 



HAAKON THE GOOD. 95 

vanquished. In the year 952, when Tryggve was 
absent, Haakon took occasion to dehver an effective 
blow at the Danish vikings who were infesting this 
part of the country (though the sons of Erik were 
not this time among them), pursued them south- 
ward, and harassed the coasts of Jutland and the 
Danish isles. It appears, however, that this mode 
of retaliation did not permanently discourage the 
vikings, and as long as Harold Bluetooth showed 
open hostility against Norway, by espousing the 
cause of Gunhild and her sons, it is quite natural 
that the warlike zeal and rapacity of the Danes 
should be directed against the neighboring kingdom. 
It is obvious, too, that Haakon, by his attack upon 
Danish soil, gave a more personal character to the 
animosity which the Danish king entertained toward 
him, and Gunhild lost no time in profiting by this 
change of feeling. From this time forth her sons ap- 
pear no longer as warlike adventurers, bent upon 
private vengeance, but as commanders of fleets and 
armies, and formidable pretenders to the Norwegian 
throne. In 953 they defeated Tryggve Olafsson at 
Sotoness, and compelled him to abandon his ships 
and save himself by flight. When the news of this 
disaster reached Haakon, he hastily made peace with 
the Tronders who had forced him to sacrifice, and 
called upon Earl Sigurd to aid him with all the 
ships and men at his command. Earl Sigurd prompt- 
ly obeyed and sailed southward to meet the king. 
At Agvaldsness they overtook the sons of Gunhild 
and vanquished them in a hotly contested battle. 
Haakon slew with his own hand his nephew Guttorm 



96 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Eriksson, and cut down his stan- 
dard. The surviving brothers 
fled with the remnants of their 
army to Denmark, and kept the 
peace for two years. But in 955 
they returned once more with a 
largely increased force and sur- 
prised King Haakon at Fraedo 
in Nordmore. The signal fires 
had not been lighted, and no 
intelligence of the presence of 
the enemy had reached the king 
until it was too late. He asked 
his men whether they preferred 
to stay and fight or avoid battle, 
until they had gathered a suf^- 
cient force. To this an old 
peasant named Egil Uldsaerk 
(Woolsark) made answer : '' I 
have been in many battles with 
thy father, King Harold. Some- 
times he fought with a stronger 
and sometimes with a weaker 
foe. But he was always victori- 
ous. Never have I heard him 
ask counsel of his friends as to 
whether he should run ; nor will 
we give thee such counsel. For 
we think that we have in thee a 
brave chieftain, and trusty aid 
shalt thou receive from us." 

When the king praised these 
words and declared himself 



EGIL WOOLSARK'S 

MONUMENT OR BAUTA- 

STONE AT FREINESS. 



HAAKON THE GOOD. 



97 



ready to fight, Egil cried out joyously : *' In this 
long season of peace I have been afraid that I should 
die of old age on the straw of my bed — I who 
never asked any thing better than to follow my chief- 
tain and die in battle ! Now, at last, I shall have 
my wish fulfilled." 

As soon as the sons of Erik had landed, the battle 
commenced. They had six 
men for every one of King 
Haakon's. Seeing that the 
odds were so heavily against 
his lord, Egil Woolsark took 
ten standard-bearers aside and 
stole up a slope of land in 
the rear of Gamle Eriksson's 
battle-array. He made them 
march with long intervals, so 
that only the tops of their 
standards could be seen above 
the slope, and not the men 
themselves. The Danes, spy- 
ing the waving banners, sup- 
posed that a fresh force was 
coming to cut them off from 
their ships, and they raised a 
great cry and fled. It was in vain that Gamle, who had 
discovered the stratagem, shouted with a loud voice 
commanding them to stay. Panic had seized them, 
and their commander himself was swept away with 
the hurrying mass, until he reached the beach, where 
he made a final stand. Here Egil Woolsark attacked 
him and received his death-wound after a desperate 
conflict. Haakon too rushed in upon Gamle, who 




ORNAMENTAL BRONZE 

MOUNTING. 



98 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

defended himself bravely, but having received terri- 
ble wounds, threw himself into the ocean and was 
drowned. The other brothers swam to their ships 
and returned to Denmark. 

This victory secured peace to Norway for six 
years. Haakon had thus an opportunity to resume 
his efforts to Christianize the country. But his ex- 
perience of the peasants' temper had apparently 
discouraged him. Personally he remained a Chris- 
tian, and induced many of his friends to forsake the 
heathen faith. He lacked, however, the uncompro- 
mising vigor and the burning zeal of a martyr and 
propagandist. He preferred gentle to harsh meas- 
ures, and shrank from antagonizing those who had 
been faithful to him in time of need. It is probable, 
too, that the counsel of his friend. Earl Sigurd, 
tended to cool his ardor, by emphasizing the politi- 
cal phase of the religious question. The result of 
this conciliatory policy, in connection with the good 
crops which prevailed during his reign, was to make 
King Haakon universally beloved. It is doubtful if 
a king has ever sat upon the throne of Norway who 
has been closer to the hearts of the people. There- 
fore, as an expression of their affection for him, they 
named him Haakon the Good. 

In the twenty-sixth year of his reign (961) Haakon 
was summering with his men-at-arms on his estate 
Fitje in Hordaland. A large number of guests were 
with him, among whom the scald Eyvind Skalde- 
spilder (Scald-Spoiler),* who was on his mother's side 

* Skaldespilder means waster or spoiler of scalds, because no 
other scald could bear comparison with him. 



HAAKON THE GOOD. 99 

a great-grandson of Harold the Fairhaired. The 
king was seated at the breakfast-table, when the 
sentinels saw a large fleet of ships sailing in through 
the fjord. They called the scald Eyvind aside, 
and begged him to decide whether those were 
not hostile ships. Eyvind sprang into the hall 
where the king was sitting, and sang a verse, an- 
nouncing the approach of the sons of Erik. Haakon 
arose and looked at the ships. Then he turned to 
his men and said : '' Here many ships are coming 
against us, and our force is but small. It is plainly 
to be seen that we shall have to fight against heavier 
odds than ever before ; for the sons of Gunhild 
come with a larger force to-day than on previous 
occasions. Loath I am to bring my best men into 
too great a danger ; and loath I am, too, to flee, unless 
wise men decide that it would be foolhardy to await 
the foe." 

Eyvind Scald-Spoiler replied in verse that it would 
ill befit a man like King Haakon to flee from the 
sons of Gunhild. '' Manly speech is that, and in 
accordance with my mind," answered the king ; and 
when the other warriors with one accord clamored 
for battle, he put on his armor, buckled his sword 
about his loins, and seized spear and shield. On his 
head he wore a golden helmet which flashed in the 
sun. Beautiful he was to behold, with his mild and 
noble countenance, and his bright hair streaming 
down over his shoulders. Upon the fields without 
he arranged his men in battle array, and raised 
his standards. The sons of Erik disembarked 
with a large army, commanded by the third of 



lOO THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the brothers, Harold, and his two uncles, Eyvind 
Skreyja and Alf Askman. The battle which now 
commenced was wild and bloody. The army of the 
sons of Gunhild was six times as numerous as that 
of King Haakon. But Haakon, knowing his Norse- 
men well, did not lose heart. Wherever the fight 
was hottest, there flashed his golden helmet. He 
joked with Eyvind, the scald, when he passed him, 
and improvised a verse in reply to the one with 
which he was greeted. The fiercer the conflict grew, 
the higher rose the king's spirits. At last, when the 
heat oppressed him, he flung away his armor and 
stormed forward at the head of his men. The sup- 
ply of spears and arrows soon ran short, and the 
hostile ranks clashed together and fought, hand to 
hand, with their swords. The shining helmet made 
the king very conspicuous, and Eyvind Scald-Spoiler 
noticed that it served as a target for the Danish 
spears. He therefore took a hood and pulled it 
over the helmet. Eyvind Skreyja, who was just 
rushing forward to meet the king, thereby lost sight 
of him, and he cried out : " What has become of the 
king of the Norsemen ? Does he hide himself, or is 
he afraid ? No more do I see the golden helmet ? " 
'' Keep on as thou art steering, if thou wishest to find 
the king of the Norsemen," shouted Haakon, and 
throwing away his shield, seized his sword with both 
hands, and sprang forward where all could see him. 
Eyvind Skreyja bounded forward with uplifted 
sword, but one of the king's men caught the blow 
upon his shield, and in the same instant Haakon 
cleft Eyvind's head and neck down to the shoul- 



HAAKON THE GOOD. lOI 

ders. The example of their king fired the Norse- 
men's courage, while the fall of their greatest 
champion brought confusion to the Danes. The 
former charged with renewed fury, while the latter 
were pressed down to the beach, and leaped into the 
ocean ; many were killed or drowned, but a few, in- 
cluding Harold Eriksson, saved themselves by 
swimming, and were picked up by the ships. While 
pursuing the fleeing foe, Haakon was hit in his right 
arm by a peculiarly shaped arrow, and all efforts to 
staunch the blood proved in vain. It was said that 
Gunhild had bewitched this arrow and given it to 
her chamberlain, with the charge that he should 
shoot it off against King Haakon. As night ap- 
proached, the king grew weaker and weaker, and 
fainted repeatedly. One of his friends offered to 
take his body over to England, when he was dead, 
so that he might be buried in Christian soil. But 
Haakon replied : '' I am not worthy of it. I have 
lived like a heathen, and therefore it is meet that I 
should be buried like a heathen." 

Thus died Haakon the Good and, as the saga says, 
was mourned alike by friends and foes. His last act 
before dying was to send a ship after the sons of 
Gunhild, and beg them to come back and take the 
kingdom ; for he had himself no sons, and his only 
daughter, Thora, could not, according to the law, 
succeed to the throne. 

Eyvind Scald-Spoiler made a song in King Haa- 
kon's honor, called Haakonarmaal, in which he 
praised his virtues and described his reception in 
Valhalla. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS (961-970). 

The sons of Gunhild lost no time in taking pos- 
session of the kingdom of their fathers. It was not, 
however, the entire Norway to which they succeeded, 
but only the middle districts. In Viken, Tryggve 
Olafsson and Gudrod Bjornsson, both grandsons of 
Harold the Fairhaired, ruled as independent kings, 
and in Trondelag Earl Sigurd, of Hlade, refused to 
acknowledge the supremacy of the race of Erik 
Blood-Axe. Undoubtedly the brothers were only 
biding their time until they should be strong enough 
to punish these contemptuous rebels; but so bitter 
was the feeling against them, even in the provinces 
which they nominally ruled, that they had all they 
could do in maintaining their authority within the 
narrow limits which had from the beginning been as- 
signed to them. One of the chief causes of their 
unpopularity was their dependence upon the Danish 
king, by whose aid they had gained the kingdom, 
and to whom they apparently stood in a relation of 
vassalage. As a consequence of this, they took no 
pains to gain the favor of the Norwegian people, 
but surrounded themselves with a great throng of 
Danish warriors who constituted their court and the 

102 



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W 

^ 






104 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

main-stay of their strength. Very unfortunate, too, 
was the influence which their mother Gunhild exer- 
cised over them. Scarcely. had she returned to Nor- 
way, when she resumed her baneful activity, egging 
her sons on to cruel and treacherous deeds, by which 
they forfeited the people's respect and undermined 
their own power. Misfortune had not taught her 
caution, nor had age softened the fierce malignity of 
her temper. 

The oldest surviving brother, Harold, surnamed 
Graafeld (Grayfell) resembled, in appearance his 
father, Erik Blood-Axe. He was haughty, avaricious, 
and revengeful ; tall of stature, finely built, and of 
lordly presence, but for all that a weak and vacillat- 
ing character. He lacked entirely that kindliness 
and bonhommie which had made his uncle Haakon 
the Good beloved of all the people. Of the other 
brothers we have no definite knowledge; they 
seem, however, all to have inherited their share of 
the traits which made their parents odious. Two 
of them, Gudrod and Sigurd Sleva, proved them- 
selves worthy sons of the malicious Gunhild. The 
others are usually spoken of collectively, and their 
names are variously given. 

It may have been the sense of his unpopularity 
which induced Harold Grayfell to make overtures to 
the former courtiers of King Haakon. Several of 
them, it appears, entered his service, but felt them- 
selves ill at ease among the foreign warriors who 
enjoyed his favor and confidence. Jealousies and 
petty bickerings were the order of the day ; every 
allusion to King Haakon's virtues gave offence, and 



HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS. IO5 

when the song of Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, praising his 
former lord, reached the king's ears, he exclaimed 
angrily: ''You love King Haakon yet, and it is best 
that you follow him and become his men." 

The men then departed, not suddenly, but one by 
one, and made the names of the sons of Gunhild 
still more detested throughout the land. Eyvind 
Scald-Spoiler in a noble verse refused to. be King 
Harold's court poet, and after his departure made a 
song in which he compared Haakon with Harold, 
much to the latter's disadvantage. There was in 
that year (962) a great dearth of food in the land ; 
crops and fisheries failed, and the cattle had to 
be fed with leaf-buds instead of grass. In some dis- 
tricts snow fell in the middle of summer. The 
people who believed that the gods had sent these 
evil times because of their anger at the kings, gave 
vent to their discontent in loud murmuring. Harold 
Grayfell and his brothers, it appears, had been bap- 
tized in their youth in England and were nominally 
Christians. They refrained from sacrificing, and 
broke down and destroyed many heathen temples. 
But they made no effort to enlighten the people re- 
garding the new religion ; and probably considered 
questions of faith as being of small moment. Sur- 
rounded, as they were, by enemies on all sides, their 
first ambition was naturally to re-conquer the king- 
dom which Harold the Fairhaired had bequeathed 
to their father. It became, therefore, a political 
necessity to break the power of Earl Sigurd of Hlade, 
as well as of Tryggve Olafsson and Gudrod Bjorns- 
son in Viken. To do this in open warfare was out 



I06 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

of the question ; and Gunhild, therefore, persuaded 
her sons to resort to treachery. By flattery and 
promises, Harold bribed Grjotgard Haakonsson, a 
younger brother of Earl Sigurd, to send him word 
when a favorable opportunity should present itself 
for killing the earl. At the same time the king sent 
messengers with gifts and friendly assurances to the 
intended victim, but failed for awhile to lead him 
into any trap. At last, when these repeated protesta- 
tions of friendship had, perhaps, made him relax 
his vigilance, Harold Grayfell and his brother Erling, 
having received notice from Grjotgard, surprised 
the earl in the night, while he was away from home, 
and burned him and all his retinue. By this deed, 
however, they raised up against themselves an enemy 
who proved more dangerous to them than the one they 
had slain. Earl Sigurd's son, Haakon, was twenty- 
five years old, when his father died, and a man splen- 
didly equipped in body and mind. He was a great 
warrior, handsome in person, sagacious, resolute, and 
friendly and affable in his demeanor. His family was, 
in some respect, as good as any king's ; for he be- 
longed to the old tribal aristocracy which had main- 
tained its authority in Trondelag from the earliest 
Germanic times. When he was born, King Haakon 
the Good, who happened just then to be his father's 
guest, had poured water upon his head and given him 
his own name. 

When the intelligence of Earl Sigurd's death 
reached him, Haakon called the Tronders together, 
and a great multitude responded to his summons. 
They clamored for vengeance upon, the treacherous 



HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS. lO/ 

sons of Gunhild, confirmed Haakon in the dignity 
which his father had possessed, and declared them- 
selves ready to follow him. With a great fleet he 
sailed out of the Drontheim fiord ; but the sons of 
Gunhild fled southward and did not venture to give 
battle. The Tronders, having given their allegiance 
to Earl Haakon, refused to pay taxes to Harold 
Grayfell, who, after some indecisive fights, was com- 
pelled virtually to recognize his rival's independence. 
Haakon, however, was well aware what such a con- 
cession must have cost the haughty king, and he 
knew, too, that his independence would last only so 
long as he was able to defend it. With a view to 
strengthening his position, he therefore formed an 
alliance with the two kings in Viken, which only had 
the effect of speedily bringing down upon the latter 
the vengeance of Gunhild's sons. Harold Grayfell 
and his brother Gudrod made a pretence of quarrel- 
ling, and feigned a furious hostility to each other. 
A viking cruise which they were about to undertake 
together was accordingly deferred, and Gudrod, 
complaining of his brother's conduct, sent a friendly 
message to Tryggve Olafsson, begging him to accom- 
pany him on his cruise. Tryggve accepted the in- 
vitation, and on arriving at the appointed place 
of meeting was foully murdered with all his men. 
King Gudrod Bjornsson (the son of Bjorn the 
Merchant) was about the same time surprised at 
a banquet by Harold Grayfell, and slain after a 
desperate resistance. After these exploits, Harold 
and Gudrod re-united and took possession of Viken. 
They hastened to King Tryggve's dwelling in the 



io8 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



hope of exterminating his whole race. But Tryg- 
gve's widow, Aastrid, anticipating their intention, 
had fled with her foster-father, 
Thorolf Luse-skjegg, (Lousy- 
Beard), and a few attendants. 
She was then with child, and 
on a little islet 1n the Rand's 
fiord, where she was hiding, she 
bore her son Olaf Tryggvesson. 
Wherever she went Gunhild's 
spies pursued her. Hearing that 
she had borne a son, the wily 
queen spared no effort to get 
her in her power. During the 
entire summer Aastrid was com- 
pelled to remain on the solitary 
islet, venturing out only in the 
night, and hiding among the 
underbrush in the daytime. 
When toward autumn the nights 
began to grow darker, she went 
ashore with her attendants, trav- 
elling only when the darkness 
protected them. After many 
hardships she reached her father 
Erik Ofrestad's estate in the 
Oplands ; but even here the wily 
Gunhild left her no peace. A 
man named Haakon was des- 
ARRow-HEADs OF IRON, patchcd wlth thirty armed at- 
tendants to search for her and her child ; but Erik of 
Ofrestad got news of their mission in time to send 




SCISSORS AND 



HAROLD GRAY FELL AND ILLS BROTHERS. IO9 

his daughter and grandson away. Disguised as beg- 
gars, Aastrid and Thoralf Lousy-Beard travelled on 
foot from farm to farm, and came toward evening to 
the house of a man named Bjorn. They asked for 
food and shelter, but were rudely driven away by the 
inhospitable peasant. At a neighboring farm, how- 
ever, they were kindly received by a peasant named 
Thorstein. Gunhild's emissaries, having searched 
in vain at Ofrestad, got on the track of the fugitives, 
and learned at the house of Bjorn that a handsome 
woman in poor attire, bearing a babe in her, arms, 
had applied for shelter early in the evening. This 
conversation one of Thorstein's servants happened 
to overhear, and on arriving home, related it to his 
master. Thorstein immediately, with loud chiding 
and pretended wrath, roused the supposed beggars 
from their sleep, and drove them out into the night. 
This he did in order to deceive the servants and 
other listeners. But when Aastrid and Thoralf were 
well under way, he told them that Gunhild's hired 
assassins had arrived at the neighboring farm, and 
that his only desire was to save them. He also gave 
them a trusted attendant who could show them the 
best hiding-places in the forest. At the shores of a 
lake they concealed themselves among the tall bul- 
rushes. 

Thorstein, in the meanwhile, sent their pursuers 
in the opposite direction, and led them a dance 
through forest and field in a vain search for the fu- 
gitives. The next night, when Haakon and his men 
had given up the search, he sent food and clothes to 
Aastrid, and furnished her with an escort to Sweden, 



no THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

where she found a place of refuge with a friend of 
her father's named Haakon the Old. Gunhild, how- 
ever, was not to be discouraged. She sent two em- 
bassies to King Erik of Sweden, demanding the 
surrender of Olaf Tryggvesson, and received each 
time permission to capture the child, without inter- 
ference on the part of the king. But Haakon the 
Old was a mighty man, and determined to defend his 
guests. The threats of Gunhild's embassador did 
not frighten him. While the latter was speaking, a 
half-witted thrall, named Buste, seized a dung-fork, 
and rushed at him, threatening to strike. The em- 
bassador, fearing to be soiled, took to his heels, and 
was pursued by the thrall. How the queen received 
him on his return is not recorded. 

Of the internal enemies of Gunhild's sons. Earl 
Haakon of Hlade now alone remained ; and it was not 
an unnatural desire on their part to reduce him to 
subjection. Anticipating, as usual, their action, the 
earl was on the look-out for them ; but having ascer- 
tained the size of their fleets, he saw the hopeless- 
ness of his cause, and forthwith sailed to Denmark, 
where he was well received by King Harold Blue- 
tooth (964). It will thus be seen that the friendship 
between Harold Grayfell and the Danish king had 
not endured the strain of diverging interests. The 
former, as soon as he felt secure in his power, refused 
to recognize the latter's claim to Viken, and paid 
him no taxes. Harold Bluetooth, therefore, allied 
himself with Earl Haakon, the bitterest enemy of 
the sons of Gunhild, hoping, by his aid, to regain his 
lost dominion. What particularly encouraged him 



HAROLD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS. Ill 

in this expectation was the continued dearth which 
prevailed in Norway, and the resulting unpopularity 
of the kings which, with every year, grew more pro- 
nounced. It was of no avail that Harold Grayfell 
almost every summer went on viking cruises, gain- 
ing a great fame as a warrior and bringing home 
rich treasures. The people hated him only less than 
they hated his mother Gunhild. An exploit of his 
brother Sigurd Sleva aroused a demonstration of 
wrath which came near culminating in open rebellion. 
Sigurd Sleva had paid a visit to a mighty yeoman 
named Klypp Thorsson, and had, in the absence of 
the master of the house, been hospitably received by 
his beautiful wife Aaluf. He had become enam- 
oured of his hostess, and had grievously insulted 
her. Klypp, on his return, learned what had oc- 
curred ; and swore to avenge the shame which had 
been brought upon him by Gunhild's son. When 
Harold Grayfell and Sigurd, in the autumn of 964, 
held a tiling at Vors, they were attacked by the en- 
raged peasants, and had to save themselves by flight. 
Klypp, with a number of his friends, pursued Sigurd, 
slew him with his own hand, and was himself slain 
by one of Sigurd's men. 

Earl Haakon, who, from his Danish retreat, 
watched the events in Norway, heard these tidings 
with satisfaction. The sudden check which his am- 
bition had received had made him ill, and for some 
time he appeared listless, refusing to eat and drink, 
or to communicate with anybody. But when his 
plans of vengeance were matured, he rose from his 
bed, strode forth with his old vigor, and proceeded 



1 12 THE STORY OF NORWA V. 

to weave a complicated net of intrigues. Harold 
Bluetooth had at that time a difficulty with his 
nephew Gold-Harold, who demanded a share in the 
government ; and, having confidence in the sagacity 
of the earl, he asked his advice. The earl saw here 
his opportunity, and had no scruple in availing him- 
self of it. He dissuaded the king from killing his 
nephew, because such a deed would arouse indigna- 
tion and alienate the great party in Denmark, who 
desired to see Gold-Harold on the throne. Far 
better would it be if he employed Gold-Harold to 
punish Harold Grayfell and his brothers, and in the 
end reward him with the throne of Norway. There- 
by the king would increase his own power, and con- 
vert a dangerous rival into a friend and ally. This 
advice seemed good to Harold Bluetooth, and after 
some persuasion he found courage to act upon it. 
He sent a friendly message to his foster-son, Harold 
Grayfell, inviting him to come and take possession 
of his old fief in Denmark, the income of which he 
might, indeed, need during the hard times that pre- 
vailed in Norway. Harold Grayfell, after some 
vacillation, accepted this invitation, and sailed to 
Denmark with three ships and two hundred and 
forty men ; but no sooner had he set foot upon 
Danish soil than he was attacked by Gold-Harold, 
who slew him and nearly all his men. 

This was the first act in the drama which Earl 
Haakon had planned. The second contained a sur- 
prise. The earl went to Harold Bluetooth, and 
represented to him that his nephew, as king of Nor- 
way, would become a more dangerous rival than he 



HAROLD GRAY FELL AND HLS BROTHERS. II3 

had been before ; and frankly ofTered to kill him, if 
the king would promise not to avenge his death. 
Furthermore, he demanded, as his reward, the king- 
dom of Norway in fief, under the overlordship of 
the king. All this seemed very tempting to Harold 
Bluetooth ; and like all weak and vicious men, he 
made objections only for the purpose of having them 
overcome. In the end he gave his consent ; and 
Gold-Harold was immediately attacked and killed 
by Earl Haakon. With a large army the tvvo con- 
spirators now sailed for Norway, and won the whole 
country without striking a blow. So great was the 
hatred of Gunhild and her sons, that not a man 
drew his sword in their defence. The two surviving 
brothers, Gudrod and Ragnfred, made a pretence of 
resistance, rallying a few followers about them ; but 
did not venture to give battle. Seeing the hopeless- 
ness of their cause, they fled with their mother to the 
Orkneys (965). Ragnfred, however, returned the fol- 
lowing year with a considerable fleet, largely made 
up of vikings who had gathered about him, and 
fought an indicisive battle with Earl Haakon. He 
even succeeded in reconquering four of the north- 
western shires. For nearly a year Haakon made no 
effort to expel him. It was not until the spring of 
967, that he felt himself strong enough to appeal to 
arms once more ; and this time Ragnfred and his 
brother Gudrod, who in the meantime had joined 
him, were defeated at Dingeness, and driven into 
exile. According to the most reliable accounts, they 
went to Scotland, but continued for several years to 
harass the coast of Norway by sudden attacks. 



114 



THE ST OR V OF NOR WA V. 



They were, however, no longer sufficiently formid- 
able to cause the earl any serious inconvenience, al- 
though he was not slow to seize upon their attacks 
as a pretext for discontinuing the payment of the 
tax which he had pledged to the Danish king. 
Gunhild died, in all probability, either in Scotland 
or the Orkneys, although one of the sagas relates, 
that she was enticed to Denmark by Harold Blue- 
tooth, under promise of marriage, and at his com- 
mand drowned in a swamp. 




CHAPTER IX. 



EARL HAAKON (970-995). 



By his daring intrigue Earl Haakon had attained 
the goal of his desires. He had avenged his father's 
death, humiliated his enemies, and gained a power 
far beyond that of any of his ancestors. With a 
nature like his, however, no goal is final. The ease 
with which he had managed Harold Bluetooth and 
his nephew — using them as tools for his own ends — 
had, no doubt, inspired him with a supreme confi- 
dence in his ability, and a corresponding contempt 
of those whose shrewdness was inferior to his own. 
The purpose therefore soon matured in his mind to 
repudiate his obligations to the Danish king, and 
make himself the independent ruler of Norway. The 
opportunity for carrying this purpose into effect 
soon presented itself. The Emperor Otto I. of Ger- 
many, who claimed sovereignty over Denmark, died 
in 973, and was succeeded by his young son. Otto 
n. Harold Bluetooth, who had always resented the 
emperor's claim, even though he was forced to 
recognize it, made extensive preparations for a cam- 
paign against Otto H., and sent messengers to his 
vassal. Earl Haakon, commanding him to come to 
his aid with all the forces at his disposal. Earl 

115 



Il6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Haakon, whatever his incHnations may have been, 
did not deem it advisable to disobey, and in the 
spring of the year 975 sailed southward with a large 
fleet and army. He did duty for a while in defend- 
ing the wall of Dannevirke, and actually beat the 
emperor in a great battle. Then, feeling that his 
task had been accomplished, he boarded his ships 
and prepared to sail homeward. The emperor, how- 
ever, hearing that Dannevirke was deserted by its 
defenders, returned for a second attack, and forced his 
way into Jutland. Whether Harold Bluetooth fought 
with him does not appear. We only know that he 
accepted a humiliating peace, reaffirming his vassal- 
age, and, according to a creditable source, promising 
to introduce the Christian religion, both in his own 
kingdom and in Norway. It is probable that both 
Harold and his son, Sweyn Forkbeard, had been bap- 
tized before, but continued in their hearts to be de- 
voted to the Asa faith. It was scarcely zeal for 
Christianity, but fear of the emperor, which induced 
Harold to send for Earl Haakon and force him to 
accept baptism and to promise to convert his coun- 
trymen to the new religion. It is strange that a man 
as shrewd as Haakon, after his recent desertion of 
Dannevirke, should have obeyed this summons. In 
all likelihood the victorious battle which he had 
fought gave him confidence in his power to justify 
himself ; and there may also have been circumstances 
connected with the affair which changed its aspect 
to contemporaries. It is not inconceivable, however, 
that he really wished for a plausible pretext for 
rebelHon, and deliberately took his chances. 




jUfi^ i*tt^f* Pfi/*p^aJ'ue^/^0 , C<'04/irt^/z^ affirm f^Pf^' "O^nitum/ , 



HAROLD BLUETOOTH. 



1 1 « THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 

With a ship-load of priests Haakon departed from 
this fateful meeting with the Danish king. But no 
sooner was he out of Harold's sight, than he put his 
priests ashore, and began to harry on both sides of 
the Sound. On the rocky cliffs of Gautland he made 
a grand sacrificial feast, to counteract the effect of 
his recent baptism, and stood watching for a re- 
sponse from the old gods, that they looked upon 
him with favor, and would give him success in the 
war he was about to undertake. Then two ravens 
came and followed his ships, " clucking " loudly. The 
ravens were the birds of Odin, and Haakon saw in 
their flight a happy augury. A warlike fury seems 
now to have possessed him. With a recklessness 
which in so prudent a man is inconceivable (except 
under high religious excitement), he burned his ships, 
landed with his army on the coast of Sweden, and 
marched northward, ravaging the land with fire and 
sword. A broad track of blood and desolation fol- 
lowed his destructive progress. Even in the Nor- 
wegian province Viken, which Harold Bluetooth had 
given to Sweyn Forkbeard, he continued his devas- 
tations in pure wantonness, as if to advertise his de- 
fiance of the Danish king and all that belonged to him. 
From Viken he took his way overland to Drontheim, 
where he henceforth lived as an independent sover- 
eign ; though for some reason he refrained from as- 
suming the royal title. 

It was probably some time before Harold Blue- 
tooth could raise an army strong enough to pursue 
the earl and defeat him in his own stronghold. 
There is some doubt, however, whether his campaign 



EARL HAAKON. II9 

to Norway, for the purpose of punishing his rebelHous 
vassal, took place in 976 or two or three years later. 
Following Haakon's example, he laid the land waste, 
killing and burning every thing in his path. In 
Laerdal in Sogn, he left only five houses unburned. 
When, however. Earl Haakon sailed southward to 
meet him with a numerous fleet, the king suddenly 
lost his courage, set sail, and made for home. It is 
said that Harold Bluetooth had on that occasion no 
less than twelve hundred ships. 

Earl Haakon had now peace for some years. He 
had, as soon as he had conquered the sons of Gun- 
hild, married the beautiful Thora, daughter of the 
powerful chieftain Skage Skoftesson : and had by 
her two sons, Sweyn and Heming, and a daughter, 
Bergljot. Considerably older than these children, 
was the earl's illegitimate son, Erik, who, according 
to one account, was born when his father was but 
fifteen years old. There is, however, good reason 
for questioning this statement. Erik was a stubborn 
and turbulent youth, who could not be induced to 
respect the authority of his father. When he was 
ten or eleven years old, he got into a dispute with 
Haakon's brother-in-law Tiding-Skofte, about the 
right to anchor his ship next to the earl's. Tiding- 
Skofte, who was a great favorite of the earl's, had 
been especially granted this privilege and was in- 
clined to insist upon it. To avenge this insult Erik 
watched his chance and slew him a year later. He 
thereby incurred the hostility of his father, and fled 
to Viken, where Sweyn Forkbeard gave him a cordial 
reception, 



I20 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

It was scarcely to be expected that Harold Blue- 
tooth should quietly accept the humiliation which 
Earl Haakon had put upon him. He was, indeed, 
getting too old himself to measure strength again 
with his powerful antagonist ; and he therefore dele- 
gated the task of punishing him to his friends and 
allies. Among the latter were the celebrated Joms- 
vikings, who lived at Jomsborg, on the island of 
Wollin, at the mouth of the river Oder. These 
vikings were a well-disciplined company of pirates, 
who made war their exclusive business, living by 
rapine and plunder. They were bound by very strict 
laws to obey their chief, to spurn death and danger, 
to aid each other, and to endure pain uncomplain- 
ingly. Like the Italian condottieri, they were will- 
ing to serve any master with whom their chief could 
make satisfactory arrangements. For women they 
professed contempt, and no woman was permitted 
to enter their burgh. These formidable marauders 
Harold Bluetooth endeavored to stir up against his 
rebellious vassal. At a funeral feast which their 
chief, Earl Sigvalde, made in honor of his father, a 
great throng of warriors were present ; the ale and 
mead flowed abundantly, and there was much good 
cheer in the hall. When Earl Sigvalde rose to drink 
the toast to Brage, he vowed that before three 
winters were past he Avould kill Earl Elaakon or ex- 
pel him from his realm, or himself die in the attempt. 
The other vikings, not wishing to be outdone by 
their chief, made vows scarcely less daring ; and the 
enthusiasm rose to such a pitch that no achievement 
seemed beyond their strength. When they woke up 



EARL HAAKON. 



121 



the next niornrng, the affair wore a 
slightly different aspect ; but having 
once promised, they could not retreat. 
So they made a virtue of ne- 
cessity, and prepared in haste 
for the attack. The rumor 
of their vows had, however, 
preceded them, and reached 
Erik, the son of Earl Haa- 
kon. Disregarding his fa- 
ther's hostility, he hurried 
northward to Drontheim with 
all the men he could gather, 
and placed them at the dis- 
posal of the earl. The Joms- 
vikings, in the meanwhile, 
occupied themselves in plun- 
dering the coasts of Norway, 
sailing slowly northward with 
a well-manned fleet of sixty 
ships. The number of their 
warriors was between seven 
and eight thousand. They 
met Earl Haakon and his 
sons Erik, Sweyn, Sigurd, 
and Erling at Hjorungavaag 



RUNESTONE FROM STRAND 
IN RYFYLKE. THE IN- 
SCRIPTION WHICH IS IN 
THE OLDEST NORSE 
RUNES READS AS FOL- 
LOWS: I, HAGUSTALD, 
BURIED IN THIS HILL 
MY SON, HADULAIK. 




122 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

in Sondmore. The earl had one hundred and eighty 
ships, the majority of which were inferior in size and 
equipment to those of his enemies ; and according to 
a probable calculation, his force amounted to ten or 
eleven thousand men. So many men and ships had 
scarcely ever before been seen together in the North, 
and the sagas relate that the fight in Hjorungavaag 
(986) was the greatest battle that has ever been fought 
in Norway. 

As Earl Haakon saw the first of the Jomsvikings 
sailing up the sound, he disposed his own ships in 
battle-array. He gave his oldest son Erik command 
of the right wing, placed Sweyn on the left, and 
himself commanded the centre. Opposite to Sweyn 
were the ships of the famous Jomsviking Vagn 
Aakesson, whose impetuosity and daring had made 
him dreaded far and wide. The young Earl Sweyn 
was no match for such an antagonist, and after a gal- 
lant resistance he began to retreat. His brother 
Erik, seeing the imminent danger, rowed around to 
his wing, drove Vagn back, and forced his brother 
to resume his position. Then he hastened back to 
his own wing, and came just in time to check the 
progress of Bue the Big (Digre), who commanded 
the corresponding wing of the Jomsvikings. The 
battle now grew furious, and the carnage on both 
sides was tremendous. The spears and arrows fell 
in rattling showers about Earl Haakon, as he stood 
in the prow of his ship, and so many hit him that his 
shirt of mail was torn into strips, and he was forced to 
throw it away. The ships of the vikings were higher 
than those of the Norsemen, and the advantage 



EARL HAAKON. 1 23 

which this afforded the former told at first heavily 
against the latter. Then, it is told, Earl Haakon 
suddenly disappeared, and the legend relates that he 
took his youngest son Erling, went ashore with him, 
and sacrificed him to the gods for victory. Instantly 
the skies grew black, and a violent hail-storm beat 
down, pelting the faces of the Jomsvikings and al- 
most blinding them. Every grain of hail, says the 
saga, weighed two ounces. Some even declared that 
they saw the maidens of Odin, the Valkyrias, 
Thorgerd and Irp, standing in the prow of Earl 
Haakon's ship, sending forth a deadlier hail of un- 
erring arrows. The Jomsvikings fought half blindly, 
fell on the slippery decks in a slush of blood and 
melting hail, but in spite of the twilight and con- 
fusion yet held their own. Then suddenly their 
chief. Earl Sigvalde, turned and fled. Vagn Aakesson, 
who saw him, cried out in a frenzy of rage : " Why 
dost thou' flee, thou evil hound, and leave thy men in 
the lurch ? That shame shall cling to thee all thy days." 
Earl Sigvalde made no reply ; and it was well for 
him that he did not ; for in the same instant a spear 
was hurled forth from Vagn's hand, transfixing the 
man at the helm. A moment before Vagn had seen 
his chieftain there, and it was for him the spear was 
intended. Confusion now became general ; and all 
Earl Sigvalde's men, seeing that his standard was 
gone, fell out of line and fled. At last only Vagn 
Aakesson and Bue the Big were left. Earl Haakon 
pulled up alongside the ship of the latter and a com- 
bat ensued, which, in wildness and fury, has scarcely 
a parallel in the records of the sagas. Two great 



124 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

champions of the Jomsvikings, Haavard the Hewer 
(Huggende) and Aslak Rock-skull (Holmskalle), 
vaulted over the gunwale of the earl's ship and 
made tremendous havoc, until an Icelander seized an 
anvil which was used for sharpening the weapons 
and dashed it against Aslak's head, splitting his 
skull. Haavard had both his feet cut off, but fought 
on furiously, standing on his knees. The spears 
whizzed about the earl's ears and the arrows flew 
past him with their angry twang. His men fell and 
the Jomsvikings were pressing forward. Then, in 
the nick of time, came his son Erik, and, with a 
throng of his men, boarded the galley of Bue the 
Big. In their first onset Bue received a terrible cut 
across the nose. '^ Now," he cried, '' I fear the 
Danish maidens will no more kiss me." Then, 
seeing that resistance was vain, he seized two chests 
full of gold and shouted : '' Overboard all Bue's 
men," and leaped into the sea. Vagn Aakesson's 
galley was likewise boarded, and there was a repeti- 
tion of former scenes of carnage. When all but 
thirty of his men were dead he at last surrendered. 
The captives were brought ashore and ordered to sit 
down in a row upon a long log. Their feet were tied 
together with a rope, while their hands remained 
free. One of Earl Erik's men, Thorkell Leira, whom 
Vagn at that memorable funeral feast had promised 
to kill, was granted the privilege to reciprocate the 
intended favor toward Vagn. With his axe uplifted 
he rushed at the captives, and, beginning at one end 
of the log, struck off one head after another. He 
meant to keep Vagn until the last, in order to in- 



EARL HAAKON. 1 25 

crease his agony. But Vagn sat chatting merrily 
with his men ; and there was much joking and 
laughter. 

" We have often disputed," said one, " as to 
whether a man knows of any thing when his head is 
off. That we can now test, for if I am conscious, 
after having lost my head, I will stick my knife into 
the earth." 

When his turn came all sat watching with interest. 
But his knife fell from his nerveless grasp, and there 
was no trace of consciousness. One of the vikings 
on the log seemed particularly in excellent spirits. 
He laughed and sang, as he saw the bloody heads of 
his comrades rolling about his feet. Just at that 
moment Earl Erik approached and asked him if he 
would like to live. 

''That depends," answered the viking, ''upon who 
it is who offers me life." 

" He offers who has the power to do it," said the 
earl ; " Earl Erik himself." 

" Then I gladly accept," the viking replied. 

The next in order, as the executioner walked up 
to him, made an equivocal pun, which, however, 
pleased Earl Erik so well that he set him free. 
Eighteen had now been beheaded and two pardoned. 
The twenty-first was a very young man with long, 
beautiful hair and a handsome countenance. As 
Thorkell Leira paused before him he twisted his hair 
into a coil and begged him not to soil it with his 
blood. In order to humor him, Thorkell told one of 
the bystanders to take hold of the coil while he 
struck off the head. The man consented ; but just 



126 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

as the axe was descending, the Jomsviking pulled 
his head violently back, and the obliging assistant 
had both his hands cut off. 

" Some of the Jomsvikings are alive yet," he cried, 
as he raised his head laughing. 

Earl Erik, who had witnessed this scene, asked 
him his name. 

" I am said to be a son of Bue," he answered. 

"Very likely is that," said the earl ; "do you wish 
to live ? " 

"What other choice have I?" asked the young 
viking. 

When Thorkell Leira observed that Earl Erik was 
in a forgiving mood, he grew very wroth. Fearing 
that he might be thwarted in his vengeance on Vagn 
Aakesson, he sprang past the remaining men and, 
with his axe raised above his head, rushed toward 
his enemy. One of the men on the log, however, 
seeing his chief's danger, flung himself forward so 
that Thorkell stumbled over his body and dropped 
his axe. Instantly Vagn was on his feet, seized the 
axe and dealt Thorkell such a blow that the axe 
went through the neck, and the blade was buried in 
the earth. Thus Vagn Aakesson was the only one 
of the Jomsvikings who accomplished what he had 
vowed to do. Earl Erik, full of admiration of his 
feat, now had his bonds removed and gave him his 
liberty. The other prisoners who were yet alive 
were also set free at the earl's command. 

Not far from the spot where this occurred sat Earl 
Haakon wdth many of his chieftains. Suddenly the 
loud twang of a bow-string was heard, and in the 



EARL HAAKON. 12/ 

same instant Gissur the White, from Valders, who 
sat next to the earl and was more magnificently 
dressed than he, fell dead, pierced by an arrow. 
Many men hastened down to the ship whence the 
arrow had come, and found Haavard the Hewer, 
who, half dazed with loss of blood, stood on his 
knees with his bow in his hands. *' Tell me, lads," 
he said, '' did any one fall over there at the tree ? " 

He was told that Gissur the White had fallen. 

" Then I was not so much in luck as T had hoped," 
he remarked ; '' for that arrow was meant for the 
earl." 

It was plain that the favorable result of this great 
battle was due chiefly to the intrepidity and circum- 
spection of Earl Erik. His father would perhaps 
have recognized this fact, if the son had not appar- 
ently superseded his authority in sparing the life of 
so important a man as Vagn Aakesson without con- 
sultation with the commander-in-chief. He did not, 
however, venture to disregard Earl Erik's pardon, 
but loudly expressed his discontent, and parted from 
his son in anger. Vagn followed his rescuer south- 
ward, and became his familiar friend and companion. 

Earl Haakon's power was now so well confirmed 
that no one ventured to dispute his supremacy. 
Crops and fisheries were good. The people enjoyed 
many years of peace and contentment. The earls of 
the Orkneys paid Haakon tribute, as if he had been 
a king, and a king he was in every thing except the 
name. His family had always been associated with 
the ancient temple and earldom of Hlade ; and it was a 
matter of pride with him to retain his ancestral dig- 



128 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

nity. This is significant when we consider how he 
was in all things a man of the old dispensation. At 
a time when heathenism was slowly crumbling away, 
and the faith in the old gods was losing its hold upon 
the upper classes, Haakon was a devout and sincere 
heathen. The continual intercourse of Norway with 
England and the lands of the South had half imper- 
ceptibly weakened the old superstitions and made the 
legends of Odin and Thor appear to many like nursery 
tales which grown-up men could scarcely be expect- 
ed to believe. Repudiation of all supernaturalism 
and a proud reliance upon his own good sword was 
at this time characteristic of the Norse viking, who 
prided himself upon his knowledge of the world and 
his deeds in distant lands. For all that the Asa faith 
as later events will prove, had yet a sufificient num- 
ber of sincere believers to make the progress of the 
new faith slow and sanguinary. Nevertheless so 
atrocious an act as the sacrifice of one's own child 
could not have failed to arouse indignation even 
among the worshippers of Odin and Thor. Such 
horrors were tolerated far back in the gloom of pri- 
meval antiquity, but must have been felt in the 
tenth century as a hideous anachronism. How 
much Earl Haakon's heathen fanaticism contribu- 
ted to his downfall is difficult to determine. The 
sacrifice of Erling during the battle with the 
Jomsvikings, though it was generally regarded as a 
fact, was not the original cause of the rebellion 
which cost the earl his throne and his life. The 
vices by which he forfeited his early popularity were 
of a kind which assert their sway over men, irre- 
spective of religions. 



EARL HAAKON, 1 29 

In the year 995 Earl Haakon was travelling in 
Gauldale, collecting taxes. His son Erlend, of whom 
he was very fond, lay with some ships out in the 
fiord, waiting to receive the treasure. One evening 
the earl sent a company of thralls to the house of 
the powerful peasant Brynjulf, commanding him to 
send him his wife, who was renowned for her beauty. 
Brynjulf refused, and the earl in great anger sent 
the thralls back with this message to the indignant 
husband, that he had the choice between death 
and the surrender of his wife. The peasant was 
obliged to yield, and with a heavy heart let his wife 
depart with the thralls. But no sooner was she 
gone than he recovered his manhood and swore ven- 
geance. He summoned the inhabitants of the valley 
from far and near, and told them of the shame the 
earl had put upon him. All promised him their 
help, and resolved to hold themselves in readiness, 
awaiting the first opportunity for attacking the daring 
profligate. The earl, in the meanwhile, being quite 
ignorant of their designs, played into their hands. 
V'ery soon after his adventure with Brynjulf's wife, 
he sent a message of similar- purport to Orm Lyrgja, 
whose wife Gudrun, on account of her beauty, was 
surnamed " Lundarsol " (the Sun of Lunde).'^ Orm, 
who was a man of great authority in his valley, sent 
word to all his neighbors, and after having feasted 
the earl's thralls, in order to detain them, refused 
to comply with their demand. Gudrun, who saw 
them depart, cried jeeringly after them : ^' Give the 

* Lund means a grove, and her name might thus be rendered : 
" The Sun of the Grove." 



I30 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

earl my greeting, and tell him that I will not go to 
him unless he sends Thora of Rimul to fetch me." 
Thora of Rimul was one of the earl's mistresses, 
whom his favor had made rich and powerful. 

War-summons was now sent from farm to farm and 
a great band of armed peasants came together, and 
marched toward Medalhus where Haakon was stay- 
ing. He sent in haste a message to his son Erlend, 
to meet him at More, whither he intended to go, as 
soon as the army of the peasants had dispersed. 
Then his time for vengeance would be at hand. In 
the meanwhile he would be obliged to dismiss his 
men and hide, until the excitement should have sub- 
sided. With a single thrall named Kark, whom he 
had received as tooth-gift "^ and who had been his 
playmate in his boyhood, he fled across the Gaul 
river, rode his horse into a hole, and left his cloak 
upon the ice, in order that his pursuers might believe 
that he had been drowned. Then he hastened to 
his mistress, Thora of Rimul, who hid him and the 
thrall in a deep ditch under her pigsty. Food, candles, 
and bedclothes, were given them, whereupon the 
ditch was covered with boards and earth, and the 
pigs were driven out over it. As it happened, Olaf 
Tryggvesson, whose young life Queen Gunhild had 
vainly endeavored to destroy, had just then landed in 
Trondelag and had slain the earl's son Erlend. The 
peasants, hearing that he was of the race of Harold 
the Fairhaired, received him with delight and ac- 

* It was customary to give to infants of high birth a thrall or some 
other valuable gift when it got its first tooth. This gift was called a 
tooth-gift. 



EARL HAAKON. I3I 

companied him to Rimul, where they thought it 
likely that the earl must be hidden. 

After a vain search Olaf called them together, 
and mounting a big stone, close to the pigsty, de- 
clared in a loud voice that he would give a. great 
reward to him who would find the earl and slay 
him. 

In his damp and malodorous hiding-place the earl 
sat, gazing anxiously at his thrall. Every word of 
Olaf's speech he could plainly hear, and by the light 
of the candle which stood on the earth between 
them, he saw that Kark, too, was eagerly listening. 

''Why art thou now so pale?" asked the earl, 
"and now again as black as earth. Is it not because 
thou wilt betray mcf^ " 

" No," replied Kark. 

''We were both born in the same night," said the 
earl, after a pause; "and our deaths will not be far 
apart." 

They sat for a long time in shuddering silence, 
each distrusting the other. From the stillness above 
they concluded that night was approaching; but 
neither dared to sleep. At last Kark's weariness 
overpowered him ; but he tossed and mumbled ex- 
citedly in his sleep. The earl waked him and asked 
him what he had been dreaming. 

" I dreamed," answered Kark, " that we were both 
on board the same ship and that I stood at the helm." 

" That must mean that thou rulest over thine own 
life as well as mine. Be therefore faithful to me, 
Kark, as behooves thee, and I will reward thee when 
better days come." 



132 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Once more the thrall fell asleep and labored heav- 
ily, as in a nightmare. The earl woke him again and 
asked him to relate his dream. 

*' I thought I was at Hlade," said Kark, ^' and Olaf 
Tryggvesson put a golden ring about my neck." 

''The meaning of that," cried the earl, "is that 
Olaf Tryggvesson will put a red ring'^ about thy 
neck, if thou goest to seek him. Therefore, beware 
of him, Kark, and be faithful to me. Then thou 
wilt enjoy good things from me, as thou hast done 
before." 

The night dragged slowly along and each sat star- 
ing- at the other, with rigid, sleepy eyes, which yet 
dared not close. Toward morning, however, the 
earl fell backward and sleep overwhelmed him. But 
the terrors of his vigil pursued him sleeping. His 
soul seemed to be tossed on a sea of anguish. He 
screamed in wild distress, rolled about, rose upon his 
knees and elbows, and his face was terrible to behold. 
Then Kark sprang up, seized his knife and thrust it 
into his master's throat. Soon after he presented 
himself before Olaf Tryggvesson with the earl's 
head, claiming the reward. But Olaf verified the 
murdered man's prophecy. He put not a ring of 
goldj but one of blood about the traitor's neck 

(995). 

Earl Haakon was the last champion of paganism 
upon the throne of Norway. He was a man of great 
natural endowment, fearless yet prudent, formidable 
in battle, and in his earlier years justly popular for 

* The red ring means, of course, a ring of blood ; i. <?,, Olaf would 
cut Kark's head off. 



EARL HAAKON. 133 

his kindliness and liberality. It appears, how- 
ever, as if the dignity and power which he conquered 
by his own ability intoxicated him and disturbed the 
fine equilibrium of his mind. Morally, he was, bar- 
ring the profligacy of his later days, a legitimate 
product of the old Germanic paganism and the con- 
ditions of life which must of necessity prevail in a 
militant community. The shrewdness and faithless- 
ness which we are apt to censure in the heroic types 
of this age, were, in reality, enforced by the hostile 
attitude of man to man and the resultant necessity for 
distrust and simulation. Candor and veracity were 
virtues which, according to the old Norse code, 
were only to be practised between friends, while 
mendacity and deceit were legitimate weapons 
against enemies. Earl Haakon was, however, even 
according to his code, culpable in not discriminating 
between friend and foe. He rose by faithlessness, 
and by faithlessness he fell. 




^^j^ 



OBLONG BUCKLE, FOUND AT ROSSELAND IN LISTER AND MAN- 

dal's AMT. 



■^M 







CHAPTER X. 

THE YOUTH OF OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 

The story of Olaf Tryggvesson's youth, as related 
in the sagas, is so marvellous that it can scarcely 
claim absolute credibility. The wonder-loving tra- 
dition seized upon him from his very birth as its 
favorite hero, and adorned every incident of his 
career with a multitude of romantic details. To 
separate the framework of fact from the embellish- 
ments of fiction is, under such circumstances, no easy 
task. That Olaf's career, even stripped of all fanci- 
ful additions, was as remarkable as any romance, 
there can be no question. We have seen how Queen 
Gunhild with untiring vigilance tracked him through 
forests and wildernesses while he was an infant, and 
how his mother. Aastrid finally found a place of 
refuge with Haakon the Old in Sweden. Her sense 
of security could scarcely have been increased when 
Earl Haakon succeeded the sons of Gunhild ; for the 
earl was not of royal blood, and must fear, no less 
than Gunhild, a scion of the race of Harold the Fair- 
haired. Aastrid therefore determined to go with her 
son to Gardarike, or Russia, where her brother, Si- 
gurd Eriksson, held a position of authority under 
King Vladimir. She took passage for herself, her 

134 



THE YOUTH OF OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 135 

son, and their attendants, upon a merchant-ship 
bound for a Russian port, but the ship was captured 
by vikings, who killed some of the passengers and 
sold others as slaves. The young Olaf, his foster- 
father Thoralf Lousy-Beard, and the latter's son 
Thorgills, became the property of a viking named 
Klerkon, who killed Thoralf because he was too old 
to command any price in the slave-markets. The two 
boys he bartered away in Esthonia for a big ram. 
The purchaser again disposed of them for a coat and 
a cape to a man named Reas, who treated Olaf kindly, 
while he put Thorgills to hard labor. With him Olaf 
remained for six years. His mother, Aastrid, in the 
meanwhile, had been found at a slave-market by a 
rich Norse merchant named Lodin, who had recog- 
nized her in spite of her miserable appearance, and 
offered to ransom her on condition of her becoming 
his wife. She had gladly given her consent and had 
returned with him to Norway. 

One day Olaf's uncle, Sigurd Eriksson, had occa- 
sion to visit the town in Esthonia where his nephew 
was living. He was just riding across the market- 
place, when his attention was attracted to a group of 
boys w^ho were playing. There was especially one 
of them whose appearance struck him, and he called 
to him and asked him his name. The boy said that 
his name was Olaf. Sigurd now discovered by further 
questioning that it was his nephew he was ad- 
dressing. He made haste to buy him and his foster- 
brother Thorgills, and took them with him to his 
house. He enjoined upon Olaf to say nothing 
about his race and birth, and the boy promised to be 



136 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

silent. One day, however, when he was out walking, 
he caught sight of the Viking Klerkon who had slain 
his foster-father. Without a moment's reflection, he 
went up and split his skull with an axe which he 
happened to have in his hand. Now the penalty for 
breaking the public peace was death, and a crowd of 
people rushed together, demanding that the boy 
should be killed. His uncle, in order to save him, 
took him to the queen, Olga, or Allogia, told her 
who he was, and implored her protection. The 
queen became greatly interested in the beautiful 
boy, and had him educated, as behooved a king's 
son, in the use of arms and all athletic sports. At 
the age of twelve he received men and ships from 
Vladimir, and spent some years roaming about as a 
viking. He is said to have done important service 
to his benefactor, reconquering a province which 
had rebelled ; but the favor which he enjoyed raised 
him up enemies who slandered him, representing him 
as a dangerous rival of the king in the affections 
both of the queen and the people. Olaf then, at the 
advice of Olga, left Russia with his men and ships 
and went to Wendland,'^ where he was received with 
distinction by King Burislav. He did not, however, 
revealed himself as an heir to the throne of Norway, 
but travelled under the name Ole the Russian. 
Burislav's eldest daughter, or, more probably, sister, 
Geira, fell in love with him, and he married her, per- 

* The present Baltic provinces of Prussia. The Wends were a 
Slavonic people, and not identical vv^ith the Vandals, with whom they 
have often been confounded. The latter, according to the best author- 
ity, were of Germanic origin. 



THE YOUTH OF OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 1 37 

formed many valiant deeds in the service of his 
father-in-law, and finally, at the death of his wife, 
sailed once more in search of adventures. He was 
then twenty-one years old. A dream induced him 
to go to Greece and accept Christianity, and he is 
also said to have sent a bishop to Russia who con- 
verted Vladimir and Olga to the Christian faith. 
Thence Olaf went to Northumberland, Denmark, 
Scotland, and France, and had adventures without 
number. At the age of twenty-five he found him- 
self in England, and was summoned to appear before 
Princess Gyda, sister of the Irish king, Olaf Kvaran. 
She had been the wife of an earl, but was yet a 
young and beautiful woman. A great many wooers 
were importuning her, among whom a certain Alf- 
vine, a great champion and man-slayer. A day had 
been fixed on which Gyda had promised to choose a 
husband, and many high-born men had come together, 
hoping to be chosen. All were splendidly attired, 
and glittered in scarlet and gold. Olaf, with a few 
companions, came sauntering up to the market-place, 
and stationed themselves somewhat apart from the 
rest as if merely to look on. He had pulled a fur 
hood and cape over his head and shoulders, and was 
otherwise plainly clad. Gyda, after having some- 
what listlessly regarded the ranks of her wooers, 
caught sight of the tall stranger with the fur hood. 
She approached him, lifted up his hood, and looked 
long and earnestly into his eyes. 

'' If thou wilt have me," she said, " then I choose 
thee for my husband." 

Olaf replied that he was not unwilling to take 



138 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

her at her word ; and their bethrothal was forthwith 
pubhshed. Alfvine in greath wrath now challenged 
the Norseman, fought, and was conquered. The 
wedding was then celebrated, and Olaf spent several 
years in England and Ireland. He became here 
more intimately acquainted with Christianity, was 
baptized, and became a zealous defender of the 
faith. In Greece, he had, according to the legend, 
only h^^n priuisigncd — i. e., marked with the sign of 
the cross. This was regarded as a sort of com- 
promise between the old faith and the new, and was 
supposed to secure a certain favor from Christ the 
White, without entirely forfeiting the good-will of 
the old gods. 

The Anglo-Saxon annals contain repeated referen- 
ces to Olaf Tryggvesson, and name him as the chief- 
tain of a great viking fleet, which, in the year 994, 
ravaged the coasts of Essex, Kent, Sussex, and 
Hampshire. He even landed with a considerable 
army, and put up his winter quarters in Southamp- 
ton, levying supplies from the neighboring country. 
The unhappy proposition was then made to King 
Ethelred II. to buy immunity from further depreda- 
tions, and the sum of ;^ 10,000 was paid to Olaf and 
by him apportioned among his men. Sweyn Fork- 
beard, the son of Harold Bluetooth, then exiled 
from his native land, is also named as one of the 
chieftains concerned in this expedition, though in 
the treaty of peace between King Ethelred and the 
vikings, which is yet preserved, his name does not 
occur. At the confirmation of Olaf, which took 
place with great pomp in the same year, King 



THE YOUTH OF OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 1 39 

Ethelred was present, and it is said that Olaf 
solemnly vowed, on that occasion, that he would 
henceforth never more molest the inhabitants of 
England. This promise he appears to have kept. 
Sweyn, however, tempted by the great sums of 
money which he had extorted, returned again and 
again, expelled Ethelred for a time from his king- 
dom, and for many years was the virtual ruler of 
England. 

The fame of Olaf Tryggvesson's deeds spread far 
and wide, and also reached Norway, where Earl 
Haakon anxiously listened to every rumor regarding 
him. That this daring young adventurer would, as 
soon as he felt himself strong enough, lay claim to 
his paternal kingdom, the earl could not doubt ; 
and as his own popularity waned, he looked forward 
with increasing uneasiness to the conflict. He well 
knew the devotion of the people to the race of 
Harold the Fairhaired, and the thought took pos- 
session of him that his own safety demanded Olaf 
Tryggvesson's death. He confided his plan to 
his friend, Thore Klakka, and begged him to 
sail to Dublin, where Olaf was then staying, and 
either kill him, if the chance presented itself, or en- 
tice him over to Norway where he could easily 
destroy him. Thore Klakka accepted this mission, 
met Olaf in Dublin, and readily gained his confi- 
dence. The young man was eager for information 
concerning his native land, and the earl's emissary 
lost no opportunity to urge him to sail thither, the 
sooner the better, and take possession of his inheri- 
tance. The earl, said Thore Klakka, was indeed 



I40 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

powerful, but if the peasants heard that a descendant 
of Harold the Fairhaired was in the land, they would 
all forsake him and join the legitimate king. Olaf 
was easily persuaded to believe these flattering as- 
surances, and in the spring of the year 995 sailed 
with five ships for Norway. In accordance with 
Thore Klakka's treacherous advice, he went straight 
to the northwestern shires where Earl Haakon's 
power was the greatest, and landed on the island 
Moster in H.ordaland. He raised his tent, planted 
the cross on the beach, and had the mass celebrated. 
Being convinced of Thore's disinterestedness, he 
also accepted his advice not to reveal who he was, 
but sail northward to Trondelag in order to attack 
the earl unawares and slay him. Great must have 
been Thore's surprise when, on landing at the mouth 
of the Drontheim fjord, he found that he had truth- 
fully represented the condition of the country. The 
peasants were united in open rebellion against his 
master, and Olaf had only to make himself known in 
order to secure immediate allegiance. Of his speech 
at Rimul, and the ignominious death of the earl, we 
have already spoken. All the chieftains and peasants 
of Trondelag were now summoned to meet at the 
O^YQ-thing, at the mouth of the river Nid, and here 
Olaf Tryggvesson was formally proclaimed King of 
all Norway. The Tronders from this time forth 
reserved for themselves the right to proclaim the 
king in the name of the whole country, and even 
to this day the sovereigns of Norway are crowned in 
Drontheim. Nevertheless, the king was required to 
travel from district to district and receive the alle- 



142 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

giance of the people. This Olaf now did, and was 
everywhere greeted with enthusiastic homage. 

The above narrative exhibits several improbabili- 
ties, which, however, do not of necessity vitiate its es- 
sential truthfulness. Of Olaf's sojourn in Russia there 
can be no doubt, although, to be sure, the Vladimir 
who at that time reigned in Novgorod had no wife 
named Allogia or Olga, and if it was his grand- 
mother Olga to whom reference is made, the king's 
jealousy seems altogether unreasonable. Likewise 
Olaf's visit to Wendland and his marriage there are 
capable of proof from contemporary poems, while 
the deeds which are attributed to him in King Buris- 
lav's service have a suspiciously legendary character. 
The adventure with Gyda in England also conceals 
a framework of fact under its mythical embroidery. 





CHAPTER XI. 

OLAF TRYGGVESSON (995-IOOO). 

King Olaf's first endeavor, after having ascended 
the throne, was to Christianize the country. He was 
by nature well adapted for this task, being- zealous in 
the faith, resolute, and uncompromising. Where 
gentle means did not avail he had no hesitation in 
employing sword and fire. Vehement as he was by 
temperament, brooking no argument, he wasted no 
time in weighing the probabilities of success or fail- 
ure, but in the conviction of the sanctity of his cause 
stormed resistlessly onward and by his impetuosity 
and ardor, bore down all opposition. His first ap- 
pearance as the champion of the new religion was in 
Viken, where he called his relations and adherents 
together and told them, that it was his intention to 
convert the whole kingdom of Norv/ay to faith 
in Christ the White, even though he were to lose his 
life in the attempt. In Viken lived at that time his 
mother and his step-father, Lodin, who had a large 
following of friends and relations. Some of these 
were, no doubt, already Christians, or had been 
primsigned, as Christianity had, twenty-five years 
before, been preached for a short time in this part of 
the country by two Germans. No particular oppo- 

143 



144 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

sition was therefore offered to the king's command, 
and within a brief period Olaf had the satisfaction of 
seeing all of Viken — the old kingdom of his father, 
Tryggve — nominally, at least, converted to Chris- 
tianity. It is not to be inferred, however, that the 
converts, in accepting baptism, renounced their faith 
in the gods whom they had previously worshipped. 
On the contrary, they continued to believe in their 
existence, and perhaps even secretly to worship 
them. The Christian priests themselves professed 
belief in Odin and Thor, but represented them as 
evil powers who had been conquered by Christ and 
thrown into the outer darkness. As Christ had now 
all power in heaven and earth, it was futile to invoke 
the favor of the vanquished gods by sacrifice. In 
this practical shape the new religion unquestionably 
appealed to many whom otherwise it could not have 
reached. The relation to the old gods had been in 
its essence a contract for protection and good crops, 
in return for certain tang-ible values sacrificed. As 
Christianity was then preaphed, it was in many 
respects the same thing under a different name. 
Prayers formerly addressed to Odin or Frey were 
now addressed to Christ and the Virgin Mary, and 
though offerings of horses and bullocks were discon- 
tinued, the fragrant incense was still supposed to rise 
to the nostrils of the new god and propitiate his favor. 
The salient and essential difference between the old 
and the new faith, and the only one which the Norse- 
men in the beginning vividly apprehended, was the 
great doctrine of peace upon earth and good-will 
among men. While Odin and Thor took pleasure 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 



145 



in bloodshed and rejoiced in war, Clirist the White 
loved peace and accorded no merit to the man- 
slayer. 

That this doctrine, though it was slow to affect 
the lives of the new converts, nevertheless from gen- 




OLD NORSE LOOM. FROM FANE NEAR BERGEN. 

eration to generation wrought a change in the moral 
consciousness of the Norsemen, can scarcely be ques- 
tioned. The old Asa faith was inconsistent with any 
kind of civilization, because it meant, in the end, 
universal destruction. As long as killing was per se 



14^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

meritorious and secured the favor of the gods and 
honor among men, no trade but that of arms could 
flourish, and every peaceful industry became impos- 
sible. In Iceland, where the spirit of the old Ger- 
manic paganism survived, even long after the intro- 
duction of Christianity, internecine feuds of the most 
atrocious character prevailed for centuries, resulting 
in a gradual decadence, followed by stagnation and 
decay. The result in Norway, as the subsequent 
narrative will show, was scarcely better. A universal 
exhaustion followed the long carnival of bloodshed, 
and a heavy lethargy, lasting for four hundred 
years, settled upon the people. 

It would be vain to pretend that Olaf Tryggvesson, 
when he undertook the task of destroying the Asa 
faith, had any conception of the superior socio- 
logical value of the new faith over the old. Not 
even the conception of one God, instead of many, 
seems to have been emphasized in the preaching of 
those days. On the contrary, the Christian religion 
was adapted, as far as possible, to the pre-existing 
polytheistic notions, and a new hierarchy, consisting 
of the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, and a host of saints, 
was exalted as objects of worship instead of the old 
gods. If the character of the religious teaching is to be 
inferred from the character of the teachers, it is safe 
to conclude that the early Germanic Christianity 
was ethically not far removed from the religion which 
it came to supplant. Thus we hear much in the Saga 
of Olaf Tryggvesson of a priest named Thangbrand, 
whose violence, pugnacity, and readiness to kill must 
have made him an odd exponent of the gospel of 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON, 1 47 

peace. Thangbrand was a Saxon, and had been sent 
north with many other missionaries to assist in 
converting the Danes. Bishop Siric, of Canter- 
bury, presented him during a visit with a curiously 
wrought shield, upon which was the image of the 
crucified Christ. Shortly after this occurrence, 
Thangbrand made the acquaintance of Olaf Tryg- 
vesson, who admired the shield greatly and desired 
to buy it. The priest received a munificent compen- 
sation, and finding himself suddenly rich, went and 
bought a beautiful Irish girl, whose charms had 
beguiled him. A German warrior who saw the girl 
claimed her, and when his demand was scornfully re- 
fused challenged the priest. A duel was fought and 
the German was killed. Some ill feeling was aroused 
against Thangbrand by this incident, and he fled to 
his friend, Olaf Tryggvesson, and became his court 
chaplain. As such he was under the authority of 
Bishop Sigurd, an Anglo-Saxon, probably of Norse 
descent, whom Olaf had brought with him from 
England. Bishop Sigurd was a man of grave and 
gentle spirit and a striking contrast to the ferocious 
court chaplain. 

The Christianization of Viken was followed by 
that of Agder. Any decided opposition the king 
did not meet until he came to South Hordaland, 
where a number of mighty chieftains had gathered 
in the hope of intimidating him. His fearless and 
resolute behavior, however, impressed them so much 
that, after some negotiations, they accepted the faith 
and were baptized. In return for this concession, 
they demanded of the king that he should give his 



148 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

sister Aastrid in marriage to the young and high- 
born chief, Erhng Skjalgsson of Sole ; and as the 
king thought this marriage in every way desirable, 
he gave his consent. Encouraged by his success, 
Olaf hastened on to Trondelag, where was the old 
and magnificent temple of Hlade, the principal sanc- 
tuary of Norse paganism. Impelled by holy zeal, 
and heedless of the consequences, he broke down the 
altar of the gods, burned their images, and carried off 
their treasures. The Tronders promptly responded 
to this challenge by sending the war-arrow"^ from 
house to house, and preparing to fight with the king. 
Olaf, who had but a small force with him, did not 
venture to offer them battle ; but sailed northward to 
Haalogaland, where another armed band, under the 
command of Thore Hjort and Haarek of*Thjotta, 
stood ready to receive him. As discretion was here 
the better part of valor, the king was in no haste to 
land, but returned to Trondelag, where the peasants 
in the meanwhile had dispersed, and began to build 
a church in the place where the old temple had 
stood. He meant to show the Tronders that he was 
neither discouraged nor frightened, that neither 
threats nor arms could induce him to desist from his 
undertaking. With the desire to strengthen his 
power here, where it most needed strengthening, he 
began also the building of a royal residence, and laid 
the foundation of the future city of Nidaros or 
Drontheim (996). 

* The war-arrow {hceror) was carried by every man to his next 
neighbor and stuck into his door, as a sign that war was at hand. To 
send or to cut the war-arrow is, therefore, to send a war message. 

u 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. ' I49 

At the beginning of the winter he again sum- 
moned the peasants to meet him at the Frostathing, 
and they again responded by an armed concourse, 
much greater than the preceding one. When the 
assembly was called to order, the king rose and elo- 
quently expounded the new faith, repeating his 
demand that the Tronders should accept baptism 
and cease to sacrifice. But he had not spoken long 
when the peasants began to interrupt him by angry 
shouts, threatening to attack him and chase him out 
of the country, unless he was silent. One of them, 
a chieftain named Skegge Aasbjornsson or Iron- 
beard (Jernskjegge) was especially active in denounc- 
ing the king and exciting the people against him. 
Olaf came to the conclusion that nothing was to be 
accomplished here by persuasion, and he resolved 
reluctantly to postpone his propaganda until a more 
propitious time. He then began to talk in a more 
conciliatory spirit ; promised the peasants to be 
present at their sacrificial feast at Yule-tide, and dis- 
cuss further with them the change of faith. This 
promise was received with great satisfaction, and the 
assembly peacefully dispersed. 

Shortly before the time appointed for the sacrifice, 
Olaf invited the chieftains and the most powerful 
peasants from all the neighboring shires, to meet 
him at a feast at Hlade. He placed thirty well-manned 
ships out in the fjord, where he could summon 
them in case of need. The guests were royally 
entertained, and as the night advanced became very 
drunk. In the morning the king ordered his priests to 
celebrate the mass, and a crowd of armed men arrived 



I50 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

from the ships to attend the reHgious service. The 
guests, who were scarcely in a condition to profit by 
the worship, observed with growing uneasiness the 
size of the congregation. When the service was at 
an end, the king rose and addressed them as follows : 

" When we held thing the last time, at Frosten, 
I demanded of the peasants that they should accept 
baptism ; and they, on the other hand, demanded of 
me that I should sacrifice with them, as Haakon, 
Ethelstan's foster-son, had done. I made no objec- 
tion to this, but promised to be present at the sacri- 
ficial feast at More. However, if I am to sacrifice 
with you, then I am minded to make a sacrifice of 
the biggest kind that has ever been made. I will not 
take thralls and criminals ; but I will sacrifice the 
most high-born men and the mightiest peasants." 

He then named six of the most powerful chief- 
tains present, who had been his most active oppo- 
nents, and declared that he meant to offer them up 
to Odin and Frey for good crops. Before they had 
time to recover from their astonishment, they were 
seized, and presented with the alternative of being 
baptized, or sacrificed to their own gods. They did 
not meditate long before choosing the former. When 
the ceremony was finished, they begged to be al- 
lowed to depart, but the king declared that he 
would detain them, until they had sent him their 
sons or brothers as hostages. 

At the Yule-tide sacrifice at More, the king ar- 
rived with a large number of followers. The peas- 
ants, too, came in full force, armed to the teeth, and 
defiant as ever. Conspicious among them was the 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 15I 

burly form of Ironbeard, who was everywhere active 
and seemed the head and front of the opposition. 
The king endeavored to speak, but the noise was so 
great that nobody could hear him. After a while, how- 
ever, the tumult subsided, and he repeated his former 
demand, that all present should accept baptism, and 
believe in Christ the White ; to which Ironbeard 
haughtily responded, that the peasants were here to 
prevent the king from breaking the law, that sacri- 
ficing to the gods was in accordance with the law, 
and that Olaf, whether he would or not, would have 
to sacrifice, as his predecessors had done. The king 
listened patiently to this speech ; and declared him- 
self ready to keep his promise. Accompanied by 
many men he entered the temple, leaving his arms 
without ; for no one was allowed to enter the sanc- 
tuary, bearing arms. The king carried, however, in 
his hand a stout stick with a gold head. He in- 
spected the images of the gods carefully ; lingering 
especially before that of Thor, which was adorned 
with rings of gold and silver. Suddenly, while all 
were looking at him, he raised his stick and gave the 
god a blow, so that he fell from his pedestal and 
broke into many pieces. At the very same instant 
his men struck down the other idols ; and Ironbeard 
who was outside was slain. It was all evidently pre- 
arranged ; and the peasants, who stood aghast at the 
magnitude of the sacrilege, scarcely knew whither to 
turn or how to resent it. They looked to Ironbeard to 
give voice to their outraged feeling, but Ironbeard was 
dead ; and there was no one among the rest who had 
any desire to speak. When the king, therefore, for 



152 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the third time, repeated his demand that they be 
baptized, or fight with him on the spot, they chose 
the former alternative. After having given hostages 
for their perseverance in the faith, and their aban- 
donment of heathen practices, they made haste to 
return to their homes. For the slaying of Ironbeard, 
Olaf offered to pay a large "■ atonement " to his rela- 
tives, and to marry his daughter Gudrun. On the 
wedding-night, however, Gudrun attempted to mur- 
der him, and was returned to her kinsmen. He can 
scarcely have regretted her much, as he immediately 
prepared for a new matrimonial venture. 

This time his attention was directed to Sigrid the 
Haughty, the widow of King Erik the Victorious 
of Sweden. Sigrid was rich and wielded a large in- 
fluence, being the mother of King Olaf the Swede, 
and the possessor of great landed estates in Gaut- 
land. She was, therefore, much afflicted with woo- 
ers, who came from many countries to share her 
heart and her possessions. One descendant of Har- 
old the Fairhaired, Harold Gronske (the Green- 
lander), she had burned up, in order to punish his 
presumption in offering himself to her. 

" I '11 teach little kings the risks of proposing to 
me," she said, as she ordered the hall where her 
wooers slept to be fired. 

Olaf Tryggvesson's overtures, which were con- 
ducted by negotiations, she received favorably, and 
agreed to meet him at Konghelle, near the boundary 
line between Norway and Sweden. Olaf sent in ad- 
vance, as a present, a large gold ring which he had 
taken from the door of the temple at Hlade. It 




aiBi 



RUNIC STONE FROM GRAN IN HADELAND. THE INSCRIPTION READS 
IN TRANSLATION: " GUNVOR, DAUGHTER OF THIRIK, MADE A 
BRIDGE IN MEMORY OF AASTRID, HER DAUGHTER. SHE WAS 
THE FAIREST MAIDEN IN HADELAND." PROF. BUGGE READS: 
"THE MOST SKILLFUL MAIDEN WITH HER HANDS." 



153 



154 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

was admired, but on being tested was found to be 
filled with copper. This incensed Sigrid, but she 
still concluded to keep her appointment with Olaf. 
They accordingly met and discussed the terms of the 
marriage. Olaf demanded, as an indispensable con- 
dition, that Sigrid should be baptized, to which 
Sigrid strenuously objected. Then the king sprang 
up in great wrath and struck her with his glove in 
the face, crying : '' What do I want with thee, thou 
old heathen jade ? " She arose, speechless with an- 
ger, but when she had reached the door she turned 
back, saying : " That shall be thy death." 

A short time after this meeting, Sigrid married 
Sweyn Forkbeard, of Denmark, possibly with a view 
to accomphshing her vengeance upon Olaf. Sweyn's 
sister Thyra, whom he had married against her will 
to the Wendic King Burislav, fled immediately 
after the wedding and arrived in Norway, imploring 
Olaf's protection. It is possible that he had met her 
before, and was well disposed toward her. At all 
events, he solved the problem by marrying her (998), 
although she was fully as old as Sigrid the Haughty, 
and had had two husbands before. 

After this brief interval, devoted to personal af- 
fairs, Olaf returned once more to the task to which 
he had consecrated his life. The chieftains of 
Haalogaland, who had prevented him from landing 
when he came to convert them, still remained unsub- 
dued ; and the time was now convenient for teaching 
them a lesson in submission. There were especially 
three, viz. : Thore Hjort, Eyvind Kinriva, and 
Haarek of Thjotta, the son of Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 



155 



who were the chieftains and leaders of the tribal 
aristocracy of those regions. It was natural enough 
that these men, who derived much of their dignity 
from their priesthoods and consequent identification 
with the old religion, should be most tenacious in 
their adherence to the faith which was the founda- 




INSTRUMENT OF UNKNOWN USE, POSSIBLY A PAIR OF SCALES, FOUND 
IN SILGJORD, BRATSBERG AMT. 

tion of their power. Haarek, who descended from a 
daughter of Harold the Fairhaired, felt himself to 
be quite as great a man as King Olaf, and he was in 
no wise disposed to submit without a trial of strength. 
It so happened that two men from Haalogaland, 
named Sigurd and Hauk, had been captured by the 



156 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

king and escaped. These, pretending to be the 
king's enemies, sought refuge with Haarek, and were 
well received by him. One day they proposed a 
sailing tour, to which their host willingly assented. 
They took provisions and beer with them in the 
boat, set sail, and steered for Nidaros, where they 
delivered Haarek into the power of the king. He 
stubbornly refused to be baptized, but was, neverthe- 
less, after a brief detention, given a ship and per- 
mitted to return unmolested to his home. From 
that day, however, Haarek, though making no pre- 
tence of friendship, acted as the ally of the king. 
He even helped to betray his friend, Eyvind Kin- 
riva, into Olaf's hands. The king presented Eyvind 
with the usual alternative of baptism or death, but 
with the unusual result that the latter was preferred. 
Thore Hjort was now alone left ; he allied himself 
with Raud the Strong, who had the reputation of 
being a wizard, and delivered a regular battle in 
which he was defeated by the king. Raud escaped 
on his fleet dragon-ship, while Thore was pursued by 
Olaf, who set a dog named Vige on his track, saying : 

^' Vige, catch thou the stag." * 

The dog did actually overtake Thore, and the king 
cut him down with his own hands. Olaf strove in 
vain to get on the track of Raud, but the Aveather 
was so terrible that he did not venture to go to sea. 
He began to suspect, after a while, that it was Raud 
himself who, by his witchcraft, had aroused the ele- 
ments ; and after having waited for several days and 
nights for a change in the weather, he called Bishop 

* Hjort means a stag. 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 157 

Sigurd to him and asked his advice. The bishop, it 
is told, raised up a crucifix, surrounded by Hghted 
tapers, in the prow of the king's ship, '' The Crane," 
and stood himself beside it, clad in sacerdotal vest- 
ments, praying and scattering holy water. Instantly 
the storm ceased about " The Crane," though it still 
roared wildly under the heavens, and the smoke of 
the lashed waves stood like a wall on either side. 
The men now seized the oars and rowed in toward 
the island where Raud was living, "The Crane " keep- 
ing the lead and the other ships following in the 
smooth water in her wake. Raud was surprised while 
asleep, and as he still refused to become a Christian, 
was tortured until he died. The king forced an adder 
down his throat, according to the legend ; and it cut 
its way through his side, killing him by its poison. 

There is much in this story which is obviously 
legendary. But there is one circumstance which 
stamps the adventure itself as essentially true, viz. : 
the detailed description of Raud's ship, " The Ser- 
pent," which the king took, and which figures later in 
the battle of Svolder. One may be reluctant to believe 
that a man so chivalrous and noble as Olaf Trygg- 
vesson on other occasions proved himself to be, can 
have been guilty of the cruelty which is here attrib- 
uted to him. This instance is, however, not a soli- 
tary one. Eyvind Kinriva, when he refused to be 
baptized, had glowing coals put upon his stomach, 
at the king's command, and expired under horrible 
tortures. Olaf's fanaticism led him to believe that 
praise rather than censure was due to him for thus 
punishing the enemies of God. It is, indeed, proba- 



158 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

ble that a man of gentler calibre, and more squeam- 
ish in the selection of his means, would never have 
accomplished even the nominal Christianization of 
Norway. In fact, so great was Olaf's zeal, and so 
single his purpose, that he subordinated all other 
concerns to this one great object, the thought of 
which filled him with a noble enthusiasm. 

Even before he had secured the allegiance of the 
surviving chief of Haalogaland, Haarek of Thjotta, 
who, with all his househould, accepted the Christian 
faith, he sent messengers to the Faeroe Isles, Ice- 
land, and Greenland, and commanded the chieftains 
there to renounce their old religion. Sigmund 
Bresteson, the Earl of the Faeroe Isles, whom he 
summoned to him, arrived in Norway (999) and was 
baptized. Thangbrand, who was sent to Iceland to 
preach the gospel, had at first a considerable success, 
baptizing such important chiefs as Hall of the 
Side, and Gissur the White, and the great lawyer 
Njaal of Bergthor's knoll. The pugnacious priest, 
however, soon got into dif^culties by his readiness 
to draw his sword, killed several men, was outlawed, 
and compelled to leave the island. In Norway, 
where Olaf had given him the church at Moster, he 
had, previous to his departure for Iceland, found it 
inconvenient to live on his income, and in order to in- 
crease his revenue, had been in the habit of making 
forays into the neighboring shires, replenishing his 
stores at the expense of the heathen. This freeboot- 
ing propensity incensed the king, and Thangbrand's 
missionary expedition to Iceland was undertaken as a 
penance for his misbehavior. It had, however, far 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 



159 



greater results than either Olaf or the priest could 
have anticipated. The public sentiment in Iceland, 
after Thangbrand's flight, changed with astonishing 




OLD LOOM FROM THE FAEROE ISLES, 

rapidity in favor of the new faith, which was legally 
accepted at the Althing in June, A.D. 1000. 

Olaf's great achievement, as the first successful 
propagandist of Christianity on the throne of Nor- 
way, surrounded his name Avith a halo which dazzled 



l6o THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

his biographers and disposed them to exalt him be- 
yond his deserts. For all that, it is a fact that his 
contemporaries, many of whom had small reason to 
love him, were no less dazzled by his brilliant per- 
sonality than his biographers. In the first place, his 
manly beauty and his resemblance to Haakon the 
Good, which was frequently commented upon, pre- 
disposed the people in his favor. Secondly, his 
natural kindliness and winning manners attracted 
every one who came in contact with him. Last, but 
not least, his extraordinary skill in athletic sports and 
the use of arms was greatly admired. He could, as 
Snorre relates, use his right and his left hand equally 
well in shooting ; he could play with three spears at 
once, so that one was always in the air ; he could 
run forward and backward on the oars of a ship 
while the men were rowing. In daily intercourse he 
was affable and generous, fond of a joke, and easily 
moved to laughter and to wrath. In anger he could 
do things which he later regretted ; and we have 
seen how, when fired with holy zeal, he committed 
acts which he ought to have regretted, though there 
is no evidence that he did. His love of splendor in 
attire and surroundings may be accounted a weak- 
ness, but it served, nevertheless, to endear him to 
his people. 

Although surrounded by enemies on all sides, Nor- 
way suffered but little from foreign wars during the 
brief reign of Olaf Tryggvesson. Gudrod, the last 
surviving son of Erik Blood-Axe, made an attack 
upon Viken in the summer of 999, but was defeated 
and slain in the king's absence by his brothers-in-law. 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. l6l 

Thorgeir and Hyrning. Much more dangerous to 
King Olaf proved the hostihty of Sigrid the 
Haughty, who was watching for an opportunity to 
take revenge upon him. Although he must have 
been well aware of the risks, he did not hesitate 
to furnish this opportunity. His queen, Thyra, had 
great estates in Wendland and Denmark, and was 
dissatisfied, because she was deprived of the revenues 
which they had formerly brought her. Whenever he 
spoke to her, she always contrived to bring in some- 
thing about these estates, and by appeals to his 
vanity ^^<g him on to war with her brother Svveyn 
Forkbeard, who withheld from her her rightful prop- 
erty. When these tactics failed, she resorted to 
prayers and tears, until her husband's patience 
was wellnigh exhausted. If only for the sake of 
domestic peace, an expedition to Wendland began 
to be discussed as an approaching possibility. One 
Sunday in March — it was Palm Sunday— the king 
met a man in the street who sold spring vegetables. 
He bought a bunch and brought it to the queen, re- 
marking that these vegetables were large, considering 
the earliness of the season. The queen, who was, as 
usual, weeping for her estates in Wendland, thrust 
the vegetables contemptuously away, and with the 
tears streaming down her face, cried : "■ Greater gifts 
did my father, Harold Gormsson, give me when, as 
a child, I got my first teeth ; he came hither to Nor- 
way and conquered it ; while thou, for fear of m.y 
brother Sweyn, darest not journey through Den- 
mark in order to get me what belongs to me, and of 
which I have been shamefully robbed." 



1 62 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

To this King Olaf wrathfully replied : '' Never 
shall I be afraid of thy brother Sweyn, and if we 
meet, he shall succumb." 

Summons was now sent through all the shires of 
the land, calling upon the chieftains to join the king 
with as many ships as were by law required of them. 
He had himself just finished a ship of extraordinary 
size and beauty, called ''The Long-Serpent," the fame 
of which spread through all the lands of the North. 
It was 56 Norwegian ells, or about 1 1 2 feet from prow 
to stern, had 52 oars on either side, and could accom- 
modate 600 warriors. The crew was made up of 
picked men, none of whom must be over 60 and less 
than 20 years of age. Only one exception was permit- 
ted to this rule in the case of Einar Eindridsson sur- 
named Thambarskelver, who was but 18 years old, 
but the most skilful archer in all Norway. With his 
bow, called Thamb, from which he derived his sur- 
name, he could shoot a blunt arrow through a 
raw ox-hide, depending from a pole. 

In order to distinguish " The Long-Serpent " from 
the dragon-ship he had taken from Raud the Strong, 
Olaf called the latter " The Short-Serpent." He had 
many other excellent ships besides, and his brothers- 
in-law, Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, Thorgeir, and 
Hyrning, joined him, each with a large and finely- 
equipped galley. 

When he steered southward to Wendland, he* had 
about 60 ships of war besides a similar number of 
smaller transports. King Burislav, in spite of his 
union with Thyra, received him well, possibly on ac- 
count of the earlier relationship through Geira, or on 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 1 63 

account of their common hostility to Sweyn Fork- 
beard in Denmark. The question of the estates was 
amicably settled and Olaf, after havingbeen splendidly 
entertained, prepared to start homeward. The rumor, 
in the meanwhile, had gone abroad that he was in 
Wendland, and his enemies, in order to gather a suffi- 
ciently large force to destroy him, employed Earl 
Sigvalde, the chief of the Jomsvikings, to detain 
him and lull him into a false security. In this the 
treacherous earl succeeded. He gained Olafs con- 
fidence, scouted the thought that Sweyn Forkbeard 
should ever dare attack him ; and finally offered to 
escort him on the way with his own fleet and pilot 
him through the dangerous waters along the Wendic 
coast. It was of no avail that Sigvalde's wife, Aas- 
trid, the night before Olaf's departure, warned him 
against her husband as openly as she dared, and pro- 
posed to send a ship along in case of danger. A 
strange infatuation bound him to his false friend. At 
Sigvalde's advice he even permitted part of his fleet 
to start in advance, as the straits between the islands 
were narrow. The traitor, in the meanwhile, was in 
constant communication with King Sweyn, at whose 
request he agreed to separate Olaf from his main 
force and lead him into the trap which his foes had 
prepared for him. Besides King Sweyn there were 
Earl Erik, who had the death of his father, Earl 
Haakon, to avenge, and King Olaf the Swede, the 
son of Sigrid the Haughty. All these were lying in 
wait with about sixty or seventy war galleys, behind 
the little island of Svolder, between the island Riigen 
and the present Prussian province, Pomerania. From 



1 64 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

their hiding-place they looked for several days in vain 
for the Norse ships, and began to grow impatient. 
They had gone ashore with their crews in order to 
while away the time, and the three commanders 
were standing together, sweeping the horizon with 
their glances, when, to their delight, the Norse trans- 
port fleet hove in sight, spreading its sails before the 
favoring breeze. 

The day was fair. The sun shone brightly, and 
the surface of the water barely curled into slight 
undulations. Gayly the proud ships stood out to the 
sea, one larger and finer than the other. When King 
Sweyn saw the beautiful ship of Erling Skjalgsson 
of Sole, he was sure that it must be ''The Long Ser- 
pent," though it had no dragon-head in its prow. 
"Afraid is Olaf Tryggvesson to-day," he said, "since 
he dares not carry a head on his dragon." "This 
ship I know well by its striped sails," said Earl Erik; 
" it does not belong to the king, but to Erling Skjalgs- 
son. Let it pass ; for if, as I suppose, he is himself 
on board, we shall be best served, if he and his band 
are not found among those with whom we are to 
fight to-day." 

By twos and threes the great ships of the Norse 
chieftains passed by, and every-time the Swedish and 
the Danish king were sure that one of them must be 
"The Long Serpent." Presently Sigvalde's fleet of 
eleven ships became visible, and having received sig- 
nals from the allied princes, turned its course sud- 
denly around the island, to the great astonishment 
of Thorkill Dyrdill, who was steering the king's 
ship, "The Crane," right in its wake. King Sweyn, 



OLAF TRYGGVESSOAT. 1 65 

at the sight of this splendid galley, could no more be 
restrained, but ordered his men aboard, in spite of 
Earl Erik's warning. He even insinuated that the 
latter was a coward who had no ambition to avenge 
his father ; to which the earl replied, that before the 
setting of the sun it would be seen who was the more 
eager for battle, the Swedes and Danes, or he and 
his men. 

Thorkill Dyrdill dropped the sails of "The Crane," 
and, taking in the situation at a glance, determined 
to await the arrival of King Olaf. Then came '' The 
Short Serpent," casting golden gleams across the 
water from its shining dragon-head ; and King Sweyn 
cried exultingly : " Loftily shall the Serpent bear me 
to-night, and I shall steer her." 

Earl Erik, in whom King Sweyn's recent taunt was 
rankling, replied : '^ Even if Olaf Tryggvesson had 
no larger ship than this, Sweyn, with all his army of 
Danes, could not win it from him." 

When at last " The Long Serpent " reared its flam- 
ing prow against the horizon, shooting long beams 
in the sun, the three princes marvelled at its beauty. 
Many a one trembled, too, with fear, when he saw 
the majestic ship approaching, and the dense rows of 
polished shields and swords flashing from afar. 

''This glorious ship," said Earl Erik, "is fitting 
for such a king as Olaf Tryggvesson ; for it may, in 
sooth, be said of him, that he is distinguished above 
all other kings as ' The Long Serpent ' above all 
other ships." 

All King Olaf's fleet, with the exception of eleven 
ships, were now out of sight, and many of his chief- 



1 66 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

tains advised him not to fight against such heavy 
odds. He would not Hsten to their counsel, but 
ordered the ships to be bound together and every 
thing to be prepared for battle. 

'' Down with the sails," he cried with a loud voice, 
which could be clearly heard across the waters; 
" never have I yet fled from any battle. God rules 
over my life. Never will I flee ; for he is no king 
who shuns his foes because of fear." 

The whole hostile fleet now rowed forward from 
behind the island, and it seemed as if the sea was 
covered with ships as far as the eye could reach. King 
Sweyn, with his sixty galleys, became first visible. 

''What chieftain is that right opposite to us?" 
asked King Olaf. 

'' That is King Sweyn with the Danish army," 
answered one of his men. 

'' I have no fear of them," said the king. " Never 
yet have Danes beaten Norsemen, and they will not 
beat us to-day. But to what chieftain belong the 
standards there on the right ? ' 

He was told that they belonged to Olaf, the king 
of the Swedes. 

"The Swedes," said he, "would find it more 
agreeable to sit at home and lick their sacrificial 
bowls,"^ than to meet our arms to-day on 'The Long 
Serpent.' Scarcely do I think that we need be afraid 
of those horse-eaters. But whose are those large 
ships on the left side of the Danes?" 

"That," answered his informant, "is Earl Erik, 
Earl Haakon's son." 

* This is meant as a taunt at the Swedes, who were yet heathen. 



I05 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

'' From them we may expect a hard battle ; for, 
methinks, Earl Erik has considerable reason for at- 
tacking us ; and he and his men are Norsemen like 
ourselves." 

While the king was speaking, Queen Thyra, who 
had accompanied him, came up on deck. Seeing 
the enormous hostile fleet before her, and the small- 
ness of her husband's force, she burst into tears. 

"Now thou must not weep," said King Olaf ; 
** for now thou hast, indeed, gotten what was due to 
thee in Wendland ; and to-day I mean to demand of 
thy brother Sweyn thy tooth-gift which thou hast so 
often asked me for." 

King Svv-eyn was the first to attack, but after a 
short and stubborn fight was compelled to retreat. 
One of his galleys was disabled after the other, and 
there was a great carnage. King Olaf himself stood 
on the poop royal '^ of *' The Long Serpent,' ' where all 
could see him, directing the defence, and himself 
fighting with spears and arrows. His helmet and 
his shield, which were gilt, shone in the sun. Over 
his armor he wore a short tunic of scarlet silk. 
While the Danes were in full retreat, the Swedes 
hastened to their rescue, and they now bore for a 
while the brunt of the battle. For every Swede or 
Dane that fell there were ten ready to take his place; 
while the Norsemen, surrounded on all sides by 
hostile ships, had to endure an incessant shower of 
spears and arrows, and the shock of repeated onsets 

* Loftingen is the elevated deck in the stern of an old war-galley, 
and corresponds very nearly to the poop royal of French and Spanish 
men-of-war of the thirteenth century. 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 1 69 

that had to be repelled by the sword in hand-to-hand 
conflicts. However tired and thirsty they were, they 
could give themselves no respite. Every man that 
fell or was disabled by wounds left a gap that could 
not be filled. And yet, in spite of the great nu- 
merical superiority of their foes, they would have 
carried the day at Svolder, if Earl Erik had not com- 
menced a destructive attack upon the right wing, 
while the Swedes and the Danes were engaging the 
centre. In fact, the latter were again retreating in 
disorder before the furious bravery of King Olaf's 
men, when Earl Erik rowed up alongside the outer- 
most ship on the right, with his great galley, " The 
Iron Ram," and made a vigorous onslaught. Here 
Norseman met Norseman, and the numbers had to 
decide. The men on the king's ship fought desper- 
ately, but were overpowered, and leaped into the 
sea, or saved themselves on board the next ship. 
The first was then cut adrift, and Erik, in accordance 
with a well-matured plan, engaged the next and the 
next. At last all of King Olaf's ships except ''The 
Long Serpent " were cut adrift, and their defenders 
slain. Then a space was cleared in front of '' The Iron 
Ram," and she was rowed forward with tremendous 
force, striking ''The Long Serpent" amidships. The 
good ship creaked in all her beams ; but as there was 
scarcely any wind no great damage was done. Einar 
Thambarskelver,~who stood before the mast on "The 
Long Serpent," sawEarl Erik standing near the prow 
of "The Iron Ram," covered by many shields. He 
bent his bow and sent an arrow whizzing over his 
head, and in the next instant another, which flew be- 



I/O THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

tween the earl's arm and his body. The earl, turning 
to the archer, Finn Eyvindsson, said : *' Shoot that 
tall man on the forward deck." 

Finn aimed an arrow at Einar just as he was 
bending his bow for a third shot at the earl ; the 
arrow hit the bow in the middle, and it broke with a 
loud crash. 

*' What was it that broke ? " asked Olaf. 

''Norway from thy hands, my king," cried Einar. 

'' So great was not the breach, I hope," the king 
made answer ; " take my bow and shoot with that." 

He flung his own bow to the archer, who seized it, 
bent it double, and flung it back. "■ Too weak is the 
king's bow," he said. 

Earl Erik was now preparing for the final attack, 
and he could not doubt its result. 

King Olaf's men were in a desperate strait, from 
which no escape was possible. The king flung forth 
his spears, two at a time, from his station on the 
poop, and many men were transfixed by his keen 
shafts. He watched at the same time the combat 
on the forward deck, whither the earl was just di- 
recting his attack, and it seemed to him that his men 
made no headway. 

'' Do you wield your swords with so little strength," 
he cried, " since they bite so poorly? " 

" No," answered a warrior ; '' but our swords are 
dull and broken." 

The king then hastened to the forward deck, where 
there was a large chest of arms. He opened it and 
took out armfuls of bright, sharp swords, which he 
flung to his men. As he stooped down, the blood 



OLAF TRYGGVESSON. 171 

trickled down over his hands from under his armor. 
His men then knew that he was wounded, but it was 
no time then for nursing any one's wounds. The 
earl's men were storming forward, and the tired 
Norsemen fell in heaps, and could no longer keep 
them back. The arrows rained thick and fast about 
the king, and it was obvious he could not hold out 
much longer. He was visible to all ; for he made no 
attempt to hide or shelter himself. One of his 
trusted men, Kolbjorn Stallare, who saw his danger, 
sprang upon the poop and placed himself at his side. 
His resemblance to the king had often been re- 
marked upon ; moreover, he was of the same height, 
and was similarly dressed. The storm of missiles was 
now directed against both, and, as they raised their 
shields, they were thickly fringed with arrows. The 
clash of arms, the groans of the dying, and the whiz- 
zing of flying missiles, filled the air. The king let his 
shield drop and looked out over the ship. There 
were but eight men alive, besides himself and Kolb- 
jorn. He raised the shield above his head and leaped 
overboard. Kolbjorn followed his example, but was 
picked up by the earl's men, who mistook him for 
the king. That the latter was drowned, there can be 
no reasonable doubt, although there is a legend, 
which was fondly cherished, that he swam to the 
galley which Aastrid, Earl Sigvalde's wife, had sent 
out for his rescue. According to this story, he made 
a pilgrimage to Rome, and lived long as a hermit in 
the Holy Land. 

King Olaf Tryggvesson was thirty-six years old 
when he died (1000). Queen Thyra, who, with good 



172 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



reason, held herself responsible for his death, was in- 
consolable. When she came up on deck, after the 
battle, and saw the destruction she had wrought she 
broke into lamentation. Earl Erik was moved by 
her sorrow and spoke kindly to her, assuring her 
that if she would return to Norway she would be 
accorded the honor which was due to her as the 
widow of so great a king. She thanked him for his 
offer, but said that she had no heart to survive her 
lord. On the ninth day after the battle she died. 




CHAPTER XII. 

THE EARLS ERIK AND SWEYN HAAKONSSON (lOOO- 
IOI5). THE DISCOVERY OF VINLAND. 



After King Olaf's death at Svolder, the allied 
princes divided his kingdom between them. To 
Earl Erik were given all the shires along the wes- 
tern coast from Finmark to Lindesness,* with the 
exception of seven, which were allotted to King Olaf 
the Swede. All the shires from Lindesness, includ- 
ing Agder, to the Swedish boundary, with the excep- 
tion of Ranrike, came into the possession of Sweyn 
Forkbeard. Ranrike (which is now a part of Sweden) 
was given to the Swedish king, who again gave it, as 
well as his other possessions in Norway, in fief to his 
brother-in-law. Earl Sweyn, the brother of Earl Erik, 
on condition of his paying one half of the royal 
revenues to his feudal overlord, and placing a speci- 
fied number of troops at his disposal in case of war. 
On similar conditions Earl Erik received the eastern 
shires, Raumarike and Vingulmark, in fief from 
Sweyn Forkbeard. 

Though a man of ability and many noble qualities. 

Earl Erik never succeeded in asserting his sway over 

Norway as his father. Earl Haakon, had done ; and 

* Lindesness is the southernmost point in Norway. 

173 



174 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Earl Sweyn could boast even less authority than his 
brother. In the Oplands semi-independent kings of 
the race of Harold the Fairhaired were still living ; 
and in Rogaland Olaf Tryggvesson's brother-in-law, 
Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, refused to recognize the 
supremacy of either the earls or the kings whom 
they represented. He surrounded himself with a 
court which, in magnificence, equalled that of the 
earls, if it did not surpass it. Ninety warriors con- 
stituted his daily household, and when occasion 
demanded he kept 240 or more. Of thralls he kept 
thirty for his daily attendance, besides a large 
number who cultivated his lands. He was a good 
master, stimulating them to thrift and economy. 
He demanded of each a certain fixed amount of 
labor, and gave him a piece of land for cultivation. 
When the required task was over the thrall's time 
was his own, and he was at liberty to apply it for his 
own advantage. The products of his land he sold 
to his master at the market rates, and was thus 
enabled to buy his freedom within one, two, or three 
years. Over his freedmen Erling continued to exer- 
cise a supervising care, employing them at wages or 
on shares in the fisheries, in the reclaiming of land 
from the forests, or in other branches of industry. 

Clinging, as he did, tenaciously to the authority 
which Olaf Tryggvesson had conferred upon him, 
Erling could not avoid coming into collision with 
the authority of the earls. He exacted a land-tax 
from the peasants of Rogaland, and, as Earl Erik did 
the same, the poor landowners had to pay a double 
tax, unless they were prepared to offer resistance. 



n 







SHUTTLES OF IRON AND OF WHALEBONE ; AND WEIGHTS FOR THE 

LOOM. 



176 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

But both the earl and Erlmg were too powerful to 
make such a course advisable. It is, indeed, strange 
that Erik, with his great connections abroad, should 
have tolerated the defiance of this small potentate 
without in some way trying to break his power. It 
is true, Erling had a large number of mighty kinsmen 
and supporters in many of the coast-shires ; and he 
would have been able to make a strong resistance. 
But it is scarcely credible that he could have main- 
tained himself against Earl Erik, if the latter had 
seriously resolved to punish him. In fact, Earl Erik, 
although his early life had been passed in the tumult 
of war, was essentially a conciliatory character. A 
mighty warrior he was when duty or diplomatic 
necessity forced him to fight ; but he hesitated to 
draw; his sword, except on extreme provocation. 
It was his misfortune, by his birth arid the circum- 
stances which brought him into power, to represent 
an age and a regime which were destined to pass 
away. It was the so-called '' heroic " age — that is, 
the age of turbulent individualism, opposed to the 
modern conception of the state. It is obvious that 
Erik had no sympathy with the feudalism instituted 
by the conquests of Harold the Fairhaired ; prob- 
ably he did not comprehend the progressive idea 
which dignified King Harold's ambition and made 
him the conscious or unconscious agent of advancing 
civilization. It is proof enough of this to state, that 
Erik allowed the dependencies of Norway, the Ork- 
neys, and the Shetland Isles to detach themselves 
from the motherland, and made no attempt to force 
them back to their allegiance. There was no inspir- 



THE EARLS ERIK AND SWEYN. I// 

ing tradition in his family, as in that of Harold the 
Fairhaired, demanding a great and united kingdom ; 
but, on the contrary, a local separatistic tradition, 
identifying him with the greatness and fame of a 
special locality. To have carried out this tradition 
completely, the Earls Erik and Sweyn ought to have 
remained pagans as their father was before them. 
They seem, indeed, to have been conscious of a cer- 
tain inconsistency in accepting Christianity, for they 
made not the faintest attempt to assert their faith in 
their relation to the people, or to check the relapse 
into paganism, which became very prevalent during 
their reign. 

Quite in keeping with the general reactionary 
character of the earls' government, was the revival 
of the viking cruises which, during the reign of 
Olaf Tryggvesson, had been diminishing in fre- 
quency. Earl Erik himself had been a valiant 
viking in his youth, and probably could see no harm 
in the careless and predatory life in which the old 
Germanic paganism found its most characteristic ex- 
pression. A great impetus must have been given to 
this mode of life by Sweyn Forkbeard's repeated 
expeditions to England, in which a large number of 
Norsemen participated. It makes little difference if 
the aggressors were nominally Christians ; their ac- 
tions were an outburst of the old, tribal pagan 
spirit, which respected no right but that of might. 

It was natural that the earls, if they expected to 
make their dominion permanent, should endeavor to 
extend their connections beyond Trondelag. The 
strength of a government in those days depended 



lyS THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

largely upon the support which it received among 
the chieftains or tribal aristocracy, whose sentiments 
were usually reflected by the peasants. It was there- 
fore necessary in some way to conciliate the late 
adherents of Olaf Tryggvesson, whose influence 
upon public opinion could be utilized to advantage. 
It may have been some such consideration which re- 
strained Earl Erik from attacking Erling Skjalgs- 
son. It is obvious that the overtures which he made 
to Einar Thambarskelver had the same end in view. 
We have seen how the young archer came within 
an inch of ending the earl's days at Svolder, 
thereby exciting the admiration of Erik for his skill 
and bravery. After the battle, the earl, with his 
usual generosity, spared his life, and sought in many 
ways to secure his friendship. He married him to 
his sister, the high-minded Bergljot, and gave him 
large fiefs, so that no chieftain in Trondelag could 
rival him in power. 

Toward his brother, Sweyn, Earl Erik behaved 
with the same magnanimity that he showed toward 
all who had claims on him. Sweyn was dissatisfied 
because of the disparity in their positions ; he ruling 
over one third of the country as the vassal of the 
Swedish king, while Erik held two thirds as an inde- 
pendent sovereign. These complaints were repeated 
with growing importunity, until Erik resolved to 
abandon the government. Hq called together the 
chieftains and the mightiest peasants of the country, 
and abdicated (1015) in favor of his son Haakon and 
his brother Sweyn, between whom he divided his 
share of the land in equal portions. As Haakon 



THE DISCOVERY OF V INLAND. 1/9 

was not yet of full age, Einar Thambarskelver 
was appointed his guardian. In the autumn of the 
year 1015, Earl Erik set sail for England, and as- 
sisted Knut the Mighty in the subjugation of that 
country. He was joined later by his son Haakon, 
who was expelled from Norway by Olaf Haroldsson, 
and was compelled to swear that he would never re- 
new his claims to the kingdom. Earl Erik died in 
England, from the effect of a surgical operation, in 
1023 or 1024. Before their expulsion, the Earls 
Sweyn and Haakon made peace with Erling Skjalgs- 
son, confirming him in the possession of the fiefs 
which he had received from Olaf Tryggvesson, em- 
bracing all the coast-shires from the Sogne-fiord to 
Lindesness. To cement their friendship, Earl 
Sweyn gave his daughter, Sigrid,"^ in marriage to 
Erling's son, Aslak. 

It was during the reign of the earls that the 
North American continent was first visited by the 
Norsemen. An Icelander named Bjarne Herjulfsson, 
during a voyage to Greenland (986), was blown out 
of his course, and discovered, while sailing north- 
ward, an unknown land on his left. He concluded 
that it could not be Greenland, as there were no 
glaciers, but only low, wooded heights sloping gently 
toward the ocean. On his arrival in Greenland, 
Bjarne told of the new country he had seen, but was 
much ridiculed because he had not gone ashore and 
explored it. His story made a great impression, 
however, upon the adventurous Leif, son of Erik the 
Red. He bought Bjarne's ship, and, with a crew of 

* Her name is differently given as Sigrid and Gunhild. 



l8o THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

thirty-five men, set sail for the unknown shore in the 
West (looo). The first land he saw was on his right 
as he sailed southward. It was full of glaciers and 
had no grass. He called it Helluland, because it 
seemed, at the foot of the glaciers, to be one flat ex- 
panse.'^ This must have been the present Labrador. 
Continuing his southward course, Leif came to a 
country which was well wooded, and had long, 
smooth beaches. He called it Markland (Wood- 
land), and the supposition is that it was Nova 
Scotia. With a stiff northeaster, he made consid- 
erable headway, and came, after another day's voy- 
age, to an island where a river flowed into the sea. 
As it was ebb-tide he could not land, but so eager 
were the men to explore the country, that they 
jumped overboard and waded ashore. The state- 
ment that the sun rose in this region, on the shortest 
day of the year, at half-past seven and set at half-past 
four, indicates a latitude of 41° 24' 10^^; Leif, ac- 
cordingly, must have landed somewhere in the neigh- 
borhood of Cape Cod or Fall River, Mass. He found 
the country possessed of many advantages. It was 
so mild in the winter that cattle would require no 
stable-feeding. The rivers abounded in salmon and 
the woods in game. A German, named Tyrker, be- 
came so enthusiastic over the discovery of grapes, 
that he relapsed into his native tongue, and was sup- 
posed, by the crew to be intoxicated. Leif and his 
men put up some booths and spent the winter in the 
new land, which they called Vinland, but set sail 
the following spring for Greenland. 

* Helle, in Norwegian, means a great flat stone. 



THE DISCOVERY OF VI N LAND. l8l 

It is evident from the description here given that 
there is either some mistake in regard to the lati- 
tude, or the climate of New England must have 
grown severer during the last nine centuries. Cattle 
could scarcely be left in the open air in the Cape 
Cod region nowadays. Nor do grapes of any choice 
variety grow wild in the chill blasts which now gam- 
bol about the Massachusetts coast ; and the tart fox 
grape, it seems, could scarcely rouse enthusiasm even 
in the breast of a German. 

A second expedition to Vinland was undertaken 
in 1006 by the Icelander Thorfinn Karlsevne and his 
wife Gudrid. Among their followers, who num- 
bered 160, were Erik the Red's son Thorwald and 
his daughter Freydis. This was the first expedition 
which was undertaken with a view to colonizing the 
country. Cattle were therefore taken along, and 
preparations made for a permanent settlement. 
Thorfinn found without difficulty the booths aban- 
doned by Leif, and himself added to their number. 
A strange people, whom the Norsemen called Skrael- 
lingSj came to them in light /boats made of skin and 
offered furs in exchange for cloth, ornaments, and 
weapons. Karlsevne, however, refused to sell them 
weapons; and when, during the negotiations, a bull 
came out of the woods and began to roar, the Skrael- 
lings became frightened and hastened away. From 
that time forth they became hostile to the settlers 
and attacked them repeatedly, killing several of their 
number. This perpetual state of insecurity disheart- 
ened the survivors, and after a sojourn of three years 
in Vinland, they returned to Greenland, 



CHAPTER XIII. 

OLAF THE SAINT (1016-IO30). 

We have seen that Christianity did not advance 
in Norway during the mild and lax government of 
the earls. Olaf Tryggvesson, with all his zeal and 
vigor, could not in the short space of five years 
eradicate paganism from the Norsemen's hearts ; 
and after his death a great number of those whom 
he had compelled to profess the Christian name 
relapsed into their former practices. It was not 
until King Olaf Haroldsson by his life, and still 
more by his death, took the imagination of the 
Norsemen captive, that Christianity became securely 
established in the land. 

Olaf was the son of Harold Gronske and a grand- 
son of Bjorn the Merchant, who was slain by his 
brother, Erik Blood-axe. It was accordingly a new 
branch of the race of Harold the Fairhaired who 
with him ascended the throne. His father, as we 
have seen, was burned to death by Sigrid the 
Haughty, whom he had the presumption to woo, 
regardless of the fact that he had a wife named 
Aasta, who was then expecting her confinement. 
Olaf was born in the house of his maternal grand- 
father and passed his childhood with Sigurd Syr, 

182 



OLAF THE SAINT. 1 83 

king in Ringerike, whom his mother married. Sig- 
urd Syr was a grandson of Sigurd the Giant, a son 
of Harold the Fairhaired and Snefrid, and had 
accordingly as much right to the throne as Olaf 
Tryggvesson, who was then reigning. He was, 
however, a quiet and unpretentious man, who was 
contented to raise his crops and superintend his 
large estates, without troubling himself with ambi- 
tious projects. During the infancy of his step-son, 
Sigurd Syr entertained Olaf Tryggvesson at his 
house and was induced by him to accept Chris- 
tianity. It is said that King Olaf on this occasion 
stood sponsor at the baptism of his namesake and 
kinsman. 

When Olaf Haraldsson was ten years old, his step- 
father begged him, one day, to go and saddle his 
horse for him. Olaf went to the stable and put the 
saddle on a large billy-goat, w^hich he led up to the 
door where Sigurd stood waiting. When questioned 
as to the meaning of this joke, he replied that the 
billy-goat was good enough for Sigurd, who resem- 
bled other kings about as much as the goat resem- 
bled a war-horse. 

In his games Olaf was hot-tempered and imperious, 
proud of his birth, and determined to assert himself 
above every one. At the age of twelve he went on 
viking cruises and distinguished himself greatly by 
his prowess and daring. He ravaged the coasts of 
Sweden in order to avenge his father's death, and 
during a cruise to England helped the sons of Ethel- 
red against the Danes (1008). This wild, roaming 
life, with its constant vicissitudes, matured his char- 



1 84 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

acter, giving him a wide experience of men and 
developing his inborn faculty for leadership. The 
departure of Earl Erik from Norway in 1015 gave 
him the desired opportuaity to assert his claim to 
the throne, and he lost no time in embarking for the 
land of his birth. He proceeded in this matter, how- 
ever, with characteristic caution. Knowing that the 
sentiment of the people toward him would have to 
determine his action, he did not wish to commit 
himself without having ascertained beforehand the 
chances of success. He therefore left his galleys of 
war behind him in England and sailed across the 
North Sea with two merchant-ships. As he disem- 
barked, his foot slipped and he fell upon the beach. 

" There, I fell," he cried, dreading, probably, the 
bad omen. 

'' No," answered one of his men, " thou didst plant 
thy foot in TSIorway's soil." 

He sailed southward along the coast, no one know- 
ing him or suspecting his errand. One day, as he was 
sitting in his tent on the beach, whittling a spear 
handle, a peasant entered and looked hard at him. 

'^ Who art thou ? " he asked. 

'' I am a merchant," said Olaf. 

" Likely enough," rejoined the peasant, " art thou 
a merchant ; but I know the eyes of Olaf Tryggves- 
son, and I believe that thou wilt soon meet Earl 
Haakon and win a great victory." 

** If it be true, as thou sayest," responded the 
prince, "" thou mayst come to me and thou shalt 
profit by my victory." 

The shrewdness of Qlaf's plan to avoid all warlike 



OLAF THE SAINT. 1 85 

display was demonstrated by the issue. In Saudung 
Sound he succeeded in capturing the young Earl 
Haakon, who, without thought of danger, was sail- 
ing along with a single ship and a small retinue. 
When Olaf saw him he marvelled at his beauty. The 
earl was but seventeen years old, tall, and well 
shaped. His hair fell in golden curls upon his 
shoulders and shone like silk. About his head he 
wore a fillet of gold. 

" It is true what is said^about you and your race," 
said Olaf, " you are indeed very beautiful. But now 
your luck has forsaken you." 

" I see no sign that our luck has forsaken us," 
answered the youth proudly ; " even if such a thing 
as this may happen. It is ever so, that sometimes 
the one is victorious and sometimes the other. I 
myself am young and inexperienced, and I w^as ex- 
pecting no breach of the peace, and could therefore 
make no defence. Another time, perhaps, I shall do 
better." 

" But art thou not aware," retorted Olaf, '' that 
from this time forth there can be no question either 
of victory or defeat in thy case ? " 

"■ That all depends upon you," said the earl, fear- 
lessly. 

" What wilt thou do, if I let thee depart un- 
scathed ? " 

'' Let me know what you demand." 

'* Only this, that thou shalt leave the country and 
renounce thy dominion over it. And, moreover, 
thou shalt swear an oath that thou wilt never wage 
war against me." 



1 86 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

The earl having no choice agreed to these terms, 
and forthwith sailed to his uncle, King Knut, in 
England. 

Before taking up the combat with Earl Sweyn, 
Olaf found it advisable to sound the popular senti- 
ment and to secure supporters among the powerful 
peasants and chieftains. To this end he visited his 
step-father, Sigurd Syr, in Ringerike, and asked his 
counsel. The story of his reception by his mother, 
Aasta, which is circumstantially related by Snorre, is 
full of vivid details, and throws a strong light upon 
the customs and manners of the age. When the 
rumor of her son's approach reached Aasta, she 
arose and prepared to give him a fitting reception. 
She ordered four maid-servants to drape the walls 
with hangings of cloth and likewise to cover the 
benches. Tables were put up and an abundance of 
food and beer was provided. Messengers were sent 
in haste to invite guests from far and near; and each 
was requested to appear in his best clothes ; and to 
those who had no good clothes, fitting apparel was 
given. King Sigurd was, as usual, in the field super- 
intending his laborers. It was just in the midst of 
the harvest, and every hour was precious. He wore 
a blue tunic, of coarse cloth, blue breeches, high 
shoes, a gray cloak, and a broad-brimmed gray hat. 
In his hand he carried a staff with a gilt silver head. 
When his wife's messengers brought him the tidings 
of his step-son's return, he probably did not relish the 
interruption. Still less was he pleased with the ad- 
monition which they brought him in her name, that 
he prove himself, on this occasion, as a true descend- 



OLAF THE SAINT. 18/ 

ant of Harold the Fairhaired. He made a little 
speech in the field, in which he cloaked his ill-humor 
as well as he might. Then he sat down and ex- 
changed his every-day garments for the splendid 
attire which Aasta had sent him. While the field- 
hands stood about staring, he pulled on a silken 
tunic, breeches to match, and Cordovan boots, with 
spurs of gold. A sword of beautiful workmanship 
was buckled about his loins, a gilt helmet put upon 
his head, and a scarlet cloak hung over his shoulders. 
Thus arrayed and with a train of thirty attendants 
he sallied forth to meet his step-son. As he rode 
down over the fields, he saw Olaf and his train of 
1 20 warriors approaching from the other side. They 
marched up into the court-yard with waving banner, 
and there Sigurd greeted the returned viking and 
welcomed him home. His mother kissed him, in- 
vited him to stay with her as long as he wished, 
and placed all that was hers — land, people, and 
money — at his disposal. 

In the family council that was held, after the feast 
of welcome was over, Sigurd Syr pledged his aid to 
Olaf, and promised to employ his influence in his 
favor. On the other hand, he cautioned him to pro- 
ceed with prudence, and dissuaded him from measur- 
ing strength with Earl Sweyn, until he had a sufficient 
force of adherents. In the end he did not question 
his success. 

" The multitude," he said, '' always love change. 
Thus it proved to be, when Olaf Tryggvesson ar- 
rived. All became fond of him, although, to be 
sure, he did not long enjoy his kingdom." 



1 88 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA K. 

To this the proud Aasta replied that she would 
rather have her son die young, after a brief and 
glorious career, like Olaf Tryggvesson, than die old, 
after a long and deedless one, like Sigurd Syr. 

Among the small shire-kings, who lived like rich 
landholders in different parts of the Oplands, there 
were many who were descendants of Harold the 
Fairhaired. All these Sigurd Syr summoned to a 
meeting, made them acquainted with Olaf's design, 
and begged them to assist in its accomplishment. 
One of them, named Rorek, refused, declaring that 
the people and the shire-kings were usually better off 
the farther away the overlord was. The kings of 
Denmark and Sweden, in whose names the earls had 
governed, were very good rulers, because they were 
too far away to do much mischief. Rorek was, 
therefore, inclined to let well enough alone, and he 
advised the rest to do the same. His brother Ring 
spoke in quite a different spirit. 

" I would, fain once more see our race at the helm 
in the land," he said ; ^ "^ ^ "if our kinsman, Olaf, 
becomes overlord over the kingdom, that man will 
be best off who has the greatest claim upon his 
friendship." 

The other shire-kings were of the same opinion, 
and all pledged their kinsman their support. The 
people were immediately summoned to a thmg, at 
which Olaf eloquently affirmed his right to the throne 
and was proclaimed king. In return he promised, 
according to ancient usage, to rule in accordance 
with the laws, and to protect the land against exter- 
nal enemies. A great multitude of warriors thronged 



OLAF THE SAINT. 1 89 

forward to enroll themselves under his banner, and 
his following became so great as to cause him incon- 
venience. For food was not abundant, and the levy- 
ing of supplies from the country might easily alienate 
the people. Again, if he meant to surprise Earl 
Sweyn, who was at that time sojourning at Steinker 
in Trondelag, it was important to attract as little 
attention as possible, and to choose unfrequented 
routes over mountains and through wildernesses. 
Nevertheless, he succeeded in penetrating into Ork- 
dale '^" with about 360 men, and to induce an army 
of 900 peasants, which had been sent against him 
by Einar Thambarskelver, to swear him allegiance. 
Earl Sweyn, hearing of this disaster, fled southward 
to Frosten and escaped only by a stratagem from 
falling into his pursuer's hands. The Tronders were 
now summoned to meet Olaf at the thing and com- 
pelled to recognize him as their king (1015). But 
they did this reluctantly, being strongly attached to 
the race of the earls of Hlade. Many of the most pow- 
erful chieftains, among them Einar Thambarskelver, 
were absent from the thing, preferring to make com- 
mon cause with the earl. 

In spite of the insecurity of his position. King Olaf 
determined to celebrate Christmas in Nidaros, the 
town founded by Olaf Tryggvesson, and later known 
as Drontheim. The earls, caring little for commerce, 
had allowed this trading-post to go to ruin ; and of 
its former prosperity there was scarcely a vestige 
left. Olaf, emphasizing here as ever his role as the 
legitimate heir of his great kinsman, began to repair 

* Orkdale is a part of Trondelag. 



190 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the dilapidated houses and arranged himself as well 
as he could with his retinue. He might, however, 
have saved himself the trouble; for no sooner had 
he moved his goods up from the ships than Earl 
Sweyn and Einar Thambarskelver descended upon 
him in the night with 2,400 men, and would have 
made an end of his career, if his sentinels had not 
warned him in the nick of time of the impending 
danger. He made his escape southward to the Op- 
lands, where he was again well received by his step- 
father. His one endeavor now was to raise an army 
large enough to crush his rival. Sigurd Syr's popu- 
larity and influence stood him in good stead, and 
many chieftains who had hitherto held aloof were 
induced to join him. Among these was Ketil Calf 
of Ringeness. The remainder of the winter was 
occupied in ship-building and in securing resources 
for a decisive campaign. It was at this time that the 
great galley '^ Karlshoved " (Churl's Head) was built, 
the prow of which was adorned with a man's head, 
which the king himself had carved. In the spring, 
as soon as the ice broke up, he sailed out of the 
Folden Fjord with about twenty ships and from 
1,500 to 2,000 men. 

Earl Sweyn, in the meanwhile, had strained all his 
powers to meet the emergency. With the aid of 
Erling Skjalgsson of Sole and Einar Thambarskelver 
he had got together a fleet of forty-five well- 
equipped ships, manned with about 3,000 warriors. 
With this formidable force he met Olaf at Nessje, a 
head-land on the coast of Vestfold. It was Palm 
Sunday (March 25, 1016), and, according to the story, 



OLAF THE SAINT. I9I 

Olaf sent a messenger to the earl requesting him to 
grant a truce until the next day. The earl, how- 
ever, who had no scruples on account of the holiday, 
refused the request, and the battle commenced. As 
was the custom in naval battles, the ships were tied 
together with ropes, " The Churl's-Head " occupying 
the centre and the smaller crafts the extreme wings. 
On board the king's ship were 120 picked men, all 
clad in ring armor and with French helmets on their 
heads. Their shields were white, with crosses of 
red or blue or gilt ; crosses of the same colors also 
adorned their helmets^ The king instructed his 
men to appear at first to act on the defensive, saving 
their spears until the enemy had thrown away theirs. 
This stratagem proved effective ; for, as the king's 
battle-array bore down upon that of the earl, he was 
received with a storm of missiles. His men, how- 
ever, were only at pains to protect themselves, 
thereby redoubling the martial zeal of their oppo- 
nents, who imagined they w^ere afraid. Then, when 
spears and arrows grew scarce on the earl's side, a 
vehement onslaught from the king met with no 
adequate resistance. Olaf took advantage of the 
momentary surprise to steer up to the earl's ship and 
engage him at close quarters. The fight there was 
long and bitter, and men fell in heaps on both sides. 
At last Earl Sweyn's men began to waver, and one 
by one the ships were cut loose and prepared to flee. 
But Olaf's men held them fast with boat-hooks until 
Sweyn ordered the prows to be cut off ; even thus 
he would not have escaped with his life, if his 
brother-in-law, Einar Thambarskelver, had not flung 



192 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

an anchor aboard to him, and by means of the rope 
attached to it hauled him out of the line of battle. 
For all that, he managed to collect his ships further 
out in the fjord, and for a while it looked as if a fresh 
attack was imminent. Sigurd Syr urged Olaf not 
to let the opportunity escape of utterly destroying 
Erling Skjalgsson and Einar Thambarskelver. 

*' For," said he, '' I well foresee that thou with thy 
character and ambition, wilt scarcely ever reach the 
point, when thou canst trust those magnates who are 
accustomed to bid defiance to chieftains." 

Before Olaf had time to answer, the earl's fleet sud- 
denly scattered, and the opportunity for destroying 
the chiefs was lost. The king's first act after the 
battle was to kneel upon the strand and thank God 
for the victory. 

Earl Sweyn, though he had yet a large following 
and sufficient resources to continue the struggle, 
sailed eastward to Sweden where he was well re- 
ceived by his brother-in-law, King Olaf the Swede. 
He seems to have contemplated a fresh campaign 
against Norway, and was encouraged by the Swedish 
king to avenge his defeat. Instead of that, however, 
he undertook during the following summer a warlike 
expedition into Russia, probably to replenish his 
treasury, was taken ill and died on the way (1016). 

Olaf availed himself of the earl's absence to extort 
oaths of allegiance from the peasantry along the 
coast ; he hesitated, however, for some reason to at- 
tack Erling Skjalgsson and passed by the provinces 
which he held in fief without landing. He returned 
to Nidaros, rebuilt the ruined ''king's hall," and the 



OLA F THE SAINT. 1 93 

Church of St. Clement. From his sojourn abroad he 
had learned a lesson in regard to the advantages of 
commercial intercourse, and he encouraged merchants 
and artisans to take up their abode in the resuscitated 
city. He had small confidence in the good-will of 
the Tronders ; and therefore liked to surround him- 
self with men who were free from local ties and tra- 
ditions. The death of Earl Sweyn, however, as soon 
as the rumor of it reached Norway, changed the 
situation. The Tronders, having now no chieftain of 
their own, began to send the king friendly messages 
and in various ways to court his favor. Presently he 
felt himself safe in summoning chiefs and peasantry 
to meet him at the thmg, and his formal recognition 
as king followed in all the shires of Trondelag. But 
it will be remembered that four of these shires, be- 
sides the adjacent provinces of Nordmore, Raums- 
dale, and Sondmore, had after the battle of Svolder 
been awarded to the king of Sweden, in whose be- 
half Earl Sweyn had governed them. A great wrath, 
therefore, possessed King Olaf the Swede, when he 
heard that the Tronders had sworn allegiance to 
''Olaf the Big." This was the nickname which he 
had conferred upon his opponent on account of his 
stoutness and burly frame. He could never refer to 
him except with oaths and opprobrious terms. His 
threats and insults, however, brought no response, 
and finally he determined to send a party of tax- 
gatherers into his former provinces. Having vainly 
solicited the tax, they sought an audience with King 
Olaf, who commanded them to go home and invite 
the King of Sweden tq meet him at the boundary 



1 94 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA V. 

between the two countries. '' Then," he said, " he 
may, if he chooses, come to an agreement with me, 
on the condition that each keeps the kingdom to 
which his birthright entitles him." 

Twelve of the tax-gatherers who ventured to dis- 
obey his command, were captured and hanged. Such 
an insult the Swedish king could not allow to pass 
unavenged, and Olaf made preparations to receive 
him. He built a rude fortress on a headland pro- 
jecting into the river Glommen, near the cataract 
Sarpen. In connection with these fortifications he 
founded a city called Borg or Sarpsborg, built a 
" king's hall," and offered protection to traders who 
came to settle there. The expected invasion from 
Sweden would naturally be directed through this 
district, and the site of the new city was therefore 
chosen chiefly for its strategic value. For a while, 
however, no decisive action was taken by the king of 
Sweden, who contented himself with killing Olaf's 
tax-gatherers in Jemteland in retaliation. The fact 
was that the feud was purely a personal one between 
the two kings, while their subjects, having no grudge 
against each other, desired peace. The king's friend 
and marshal, Bjorn Stallare, was induced to speak in 
the people's cause, and was finally commissioned to 
go as Olaf's embassador to Sweden, proposing peace 
on the conditions already named. But this embassy 
involved great danger, as Olaf the Swede, in his fury, 
did not even permit the name of his enemy to be 
mentioned in his presence. Bjorn therefore sent his 
friend, the Icelander, Hjalte Skeggesson, in advance 
to prepare the way for him, while he himself tarried 



OLAF THE SAINT. 195 

with Ragnvald, the earl of Vestergotland, who 
had married the sister of Olaf Tryggvesson. Ragn- 
vald's foster-father was the mighty peasant, Thorgny 
Thorgnysson, the law-man.* By securing the friend- 
ship of the earl, Bjorn accordingly assured himself of 
protection, in case the king should attempt violence 
against him. At the great winter thing in Upsala, 
where the king was present, he suddenly rose out 
of the throng of the people and said in a loud voice ; 
so that all could hear him : ' King Olaf sends me 
hither to offer the king of Sweden peace and the 
boundary which from ancient times has been between 
Norway and Sweden." 

When Olaf the Swede heard the name of King 
Olaf, he first supposed that the speaker referred to 
himself ; but when he began to see the connection, 
he rose and called out, in great wrath, that the man 
who was speaking should be silent, as such speech 
would not be tolerated. Bjorn then sat down ; but 
instantly Earl Ragnvald arose and said that his 
people had suffered greatly from the interruption of 
commercial intercourse with Norway, and were all 
of opinion that the king should accept the proposal 
of Olaf the Big ; and, as guaranty of peace, give him 
his daughter, Ingegerd, in marriage. The king, on 
hearing this, declared, angrily, that he would hear 
of no peace ; he called the earl a traitor who de- 
served to be driven out of the country, and berated 
him for having married a woman who sympathized 

* Laga-madr is not a lawyer in the modern sense, but rather a kind 
of judge. The office had a slightly different significance in Sweden 
from what it acquired in Norway when introduced there by King 
Sverre. 



ig6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Avith the king's enemies. In the hope that the mat- 
ter would now be dropped, he resumed his seat. 
Then up rose Thorgny the Lawman. He was very 
large of stature, gray-haired, and broad-chested, and 
his beard fell like a cataract down to his girdle. The 
moment he was on his feet, the people thronged for- 
ward with great noise and rattle of arms. " Quite 
different are the kings of Sweden now," Throgny 
began, *' from what they were in earlier times. 
Thorgny, my grandfather, could remember Erik 
Eimundsson, and told of him that, while he was 
in his best years, he went in warfare every summer 
to different lands, and subjugated Finnland, Karelen, 
Esthonia, Kurland, and many other eastern lands. 
Men may yet see the earthworks and other great en- 
terprises he undertook ; and yet he was not too 
proud to listen to people who had necessary things 
to say to him. Thorgny, my father, was for a long 
time with King Bjorn, and knew his manner of be- 
having. In Bjorn's time, the kingdom was very 
powerful and suffered no loss; he was very easy to 
get along with, to his friends. I can myself remem- 
ber King Erik the Victorious, and I was with him in 
many a war. He increased the realm of the Swedes 
and bravely defended it. He, too, accepted good 
counsel from us. But this king whom we now have 
will suffer no man to speak to him, unless he speaks 
that which he likes. This he insists upon with all 
his might ; but he suffers provinces to be lost for 
want of briskness and enterprise. He wishes to 
conquer the realm of Norway — a thing which no 
Swedish king has hitherto desired, — and this causes 



OLAF THE SAINT. J 97 

many a man disquietude. Now, it is the wish of us, 
the peasants, that thou. King Olaf, makest peace 
with Olaf the Big, the King of Norway, and 
givest him thy daughter, Ingegerd, in marriage. 
* * * If thou wilt not consent to this, then 
we will attack thee and kill thee, and no longer 
suffer breach of the peace and breach of law from 
thee. Thus our forefathers did in days of old. They 
flung five kings down into a swamp at the Mora 
things because they were too inflated with pride — 
just as thou art. Tell us now, in this hour, which of 
these conditions thou wilt choose." 

The peasants signified loudly, by rattle of arms, 
their approval of this sentiment ; and the king, quite 
overawed, rose and said that he would yield and let 
the peasants have their way in this, matter. The 
conditions of peace were thus accepted, and the time 
for the wedding was fixed. Bjorn and his men re- 
turned to Norway and received valuable gifts from 
King Olaf, for having successfully accomplished 
a difficult mission. Unhappily, however, the 
Swedish king, as soon as the danger was removed, 
began to reconsider his promise ; and it gave him, no 
doubt, satisfaction to hear of his enemy's discomfort 
when, after vainly waiting for his bride on the 
boundary, he returned to Sarpsborg (ioi8). It did 
not occur to him that his own subjects, who had de- 
manded the cessation of hostilities, might resent his 
undignified trick ; and he was both surprised and 
alarmed when a revolt broke out, which came very 
near costing him his crown. Once more he had to 
make concessions, promise to make peace with the 



198 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

king of Norway, and accept his twelve-year-old son, 
Anund Jacob, as co-regent. King Olaf, of Nor- 
way, had, in the meanwhile, contrary to the will of 
her father, married Aastrid, a younger sister of 
Ingegerd. At the peace of Konghelle (1019), where 
the two kings finally met, this marriage was recog- 
nized by the king of Sweden, and friendly relations 
were established. The province of Jemteland re- 
mained in the possession of Olaf of Norway. 

This is the first time that Norway, as an integral 
kingdom, treats with a foreign power. The kings of 
Sweden and Denmark who claimed descent from 
Ragnar Lodbrok and through him from the gods, 
had never until now recognized the descendants of 
Harold the Fairhaired as rulers of a united realm 
and their own equals in dignity. Norway was to 
them merely a collection of small, scattered com- 
munities which, having once been united, made haste 
to fall to pieces again, and had at different times 
recognized the overlordship of the kings of Sweden 
and Denmark. The reluctance of the Swedish king 
to give his daughter in marriage to Olaf Haroldsson 
is therefore quite comprehensible. 

Olaf Haroldsson was, undoubtedly, the first king, 
since Harold the Fairhaired, who had any clear con- 
ception of a national unity. The thought may have 
been present in the mind of Olaf Trygvesson, but he 
died too soon to carry it out. Olaf Haroldsson, on 
the other hand, set to work with deliberate purpose 
to unite all Norway under the cross of Christ. With 
300 armed men he travelled from shire to shire, and 
severely punished those who secretly or openly sacri- 



OLAF THE SAINT. 1 99 

ficed to the old gods or indulged in any pagan prac- 
tice. Some were outlawed and their property 
confiscated, others were maimed, and a few hanged 
or beheaded. Fugitives spread the report of the 
king's violence ; and alarm and resentment filled the 
minds of all who were yet devoted to the Asa faith. 
Five shire-kings in the Oplands, all of whom had 
given allegiance to Olaf, formed a conspiracy, under 
the leadership of King Rorek, to murder him. But 
Ketil Calf of Ringeness got wind of their purpose, 
and hastened with the tidings to Olaf, who crossed 
the lake Mjosen in the night, surprised the conspira- 
tors, and captured them. Rorek was blinded, Gudrod, 
the king of Hadeland and Raumarike, had his 
tongue cut out, and the others were punished with 
similar severity. The death of Sigurd Syr (1018) 
called Olaf to Ringerike where he spent some days 
arranging the affairs of his widowed mother. Aasta 
had three sons by Sigurd Syr — Guttorm, Halfdan, 
and Harold. These she brought into the hall to 
make them acquainted with their half-brother, the 
king. Olaf, it is told, put Guttorm and Halfdan on 
his knees, and made such a fierce face at them that 
they grew frightened and ran away. He then took 
the youngest boy, Harold, and stared at him with 
the same stern expression. The boy, instead of run- 
ning away, made a face as stern as the king's and 
stared back at him. Olaf, to test him further, pulled 
his hair; but Harold, nothing daunted, retaliated by 
pulling the king's beard. The next day Olaf and 
Aasta stood watching the boys at play. Guttorm 
and Halfdan had built barns and stables, and made 



200 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

figures representing cows and sheep ; while Harold 
had started a fleet of chips and shavings on a pond, 
and delighted in seeing them drift before the wind. 
The king asked him what they were meant to repre- 
sent. 

" Ships of war," answered the boy. 

^' I should not wonder, kinsman," said Olaf, '' if 
some day thou wouldst command ships of war." 

; Guttorm was now called and asked what he 
desired most of all. 
:" Land," he replied. 
, ^* How much ? " asked the king. 

'' I wish," said the boy, "to sow as much every 
summer as would cover the headland that sticks out 
into the water there." 

The headland included ten large farms. 

"Much grain could grow there," observed the 
king. 

Halfdan declared that what he wished most of all 
was cows, and so many of them that in drinking 
they would cover the shores of Guttorm s headland. 

"But what do you wish, Harold?" asked Olaf, 
turning to the youngest boy. 

" Men," * answered Harold. 

" How many ? " 

" So many that they would in a single meal eat up 
all my brother Halfdan's cattle." 

" There, mother," said Olaf, laughing, as he turned 
to Aasta, " thou art fostering a king." 

* The word used is hus-karler, i. e., house-carles, retainers. 
What the boy meant to say was that he wished to have men under his 
command. 



OLAF THE SA/4VT. 201 

This prophecy was verified, for Harold Sigurdsson 
became king of Norway. 

'From Ringerike Olaf went southward to Tuns- 
berg, where he intended to celebrate Easter. He 
carried the bhnd King Rorek with him, and seemed 
incHned by kindness to make him forget his hard 
fate. He gave him servants and money and the 
seat at table next to his own. But Rorek could not 
forget that he was of the race of Harold the Fair- 
haired, and that he had once been king. For a long 
while he disguised his feelings, appearing careless 
and jolly, while in his heart he was nursing plans of 
vengeance. First he induced his servant, Sweyn, to 
attempt the life of the king. But when in the criti- 
cal moment the king looked hard at him, Sweyn 
grew pale, fell at Olaf's feet, and implored forgive- 
ness. From that time Rorek was no longer allowed 
to sit at the king's table ; but he continued to be well 
treated, although he had to submit to the company 
of two keepers, who were made responsible for his 
actions. These he killed by the aid of his friends, 
and made a futile effort to regain his liberty. But 
even after he had been brought back, the king took 
no vengeance upon him. On Ascension Day, 1018, 
Olaf attended mass, and Rorek accompanied him. 
When Olaf knelt down, the blind man laid his hands 
upon his shoulder, saying : '' Thou hast ermine on 
to-day, kinsman." ^^ Yes," said the king, ^' for to-day 
we celebrate a great festival in memory of Christ's 
ascent from earth to heaven." 

'' You tell me so much about Christ," said Rorek, 
'' which I don't understand, and therefore can't re- 



202 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

member ; although, to be sure, many incredible things 
may have happened in ancient times." 

When the mass commenced, Olaf arose, raised his 
hands above his head, and bowed toward the altar, 
so that his cloak fell from his shoulders. Swift as a 
flash Rorek sprang forward and made a lunge with 
his dagger at the place where the king had stood. 
The cloak was rent in twain, but the forward inclina- 
tion of the king's body saved him. Rorek made a 
second thrust, but Olaf had by this time rushed out 
upon the floor, and was beyond his reach. 

'' Fleest thou now, Olaf the Big," shouted Rorek, 
" from me who am blind ? " 

He had put his hand on the king's shoulder merely 
to feel if he wore armor. The would-be murderer 
was now seized, but though many urged him, Olaf 
refused to put him to death. Being, however, com- 
pelled to protect himself from his machinations, he 
sent Rorek to Iceland, where, a few years later, he 
died. All the shire-kings had now lost their power, 
and for the first time in the history of Norway, no 
one had royal title in all the country except the king. 
It was as the representatives of a narrow local 
patriotism, which was shared by a large number of 
the people, that these men had been formidable, and to 
weld all the scattered tribes into one nation would have 
been impossible, without first breaking their power. 
But as has already been observed, to break their 
power, as long as the Asa faith was the national 
religion, was out of the question ; because the old 
tribal chieftainships embraced also the priesthoods, 
and the hereditary dignity of the local priest-kings 



OLAF THE SAINT. 



203 



was thus hallowed by all the religious as well as the 
political traditions of the tribe. King Olaf's zeal 
for the Christianization of the country had, therefore, 



I 



% 



J 



KNIVES OF IRON FOUND IN HEDEMARKEN AND HADELAND. 



its political as well as its religious aspect ; and it was no 
mere coincidence that he directed his energy simul- 
taneously against the old gods and the men who de- 
rived the chief benefit from their worship. During 



204 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. 

the years of peace from 1020-1026 he devoted him- 
self with unflagging ardor to this task of eradicating 
every vestige of heathenism, and bringing the laws 
and institutions of the land into conformity with the 
religion of Christ. It was a noble task and, if we 
overlook a certain tendency to violence which was in 
the spirit of the age, nobly performed. To perform 
it completely would have been a superhuman labor. 
The ideals and sentiments of men, of which their insti- 
tutions are but the expression, do not change radically 
in the course of one or two generations. There are 
traces of a gradual change of sentiment, even before 
the days of Olaf Haroldsson, in favor of gentler and 
more peaceful ideals. Not only by bloody deeds was 
honor acquired, but a man could by just and honor- 
able conduct, and particularly by insight into the 
law, make for himself a respected position, even if he 
was reluctant to unsheath the sword. Instances of 
this kind are, however, rare, and to draw general in- 
ferences from them would be hazardous. War was 
the Norseman's occupation, and his gods were war- 
gods. A life full of warlike achievements, and after 
death an honorable fame, he had been taught to re- 
gard as the worthiest objects of aspiration. Asceti- 
cism and humility he looked upon with pitying dis- 
dain, and the sublimity of self-sacrificing suffering, as 
revealed in Christ, could scarcely appeal to him. A 
god who consented to be slain by his enemies must 
have appeared to him quite an incomprehensible being, 
whose feebleness contrasted strikingly with the gran- 
deur of the thundering Thor. The joys of Valhalla, 
the valkyrias with the mead-horns, the daily diet of 



OLAF THE SAINT. 205 

porkpthe exhilarating tumult of never-ending com- 
bat, and the glorious companionship with departed 
heroes, were in conformity with the ideas of happi- 
ness which his life and training had fostered ; while 
the Christian heaven, with its prospect of unending 
praise, in the company of saints who had no taste 
for fight or craving for honor, must, by comparison, 
have appeared ineffably dreary. It is told of a 
Frisian chieftain, who was about to be baptized, that 
he suddenly turned to the priest and asked him where 
his brave forefathers were who had died unbaptized. 

*' They are in hell," answered the priest." 

'' Then," said the chief, flinging off his baptismal 
robe and stepping out of the water, '' I will rather 
be in hell with Odin and my forefathers, who were 
brave and noble men, than in heaven with cowardly 
Christians and bald-headed monks." 

It will be seen, then, that the relapse into paganism 
which followed the death of Olaf Tryggvesson was 
what might have been expected ; and the general re- 
action against the new faith which set in during the 
reign of the earls was also quite natural. Olaf, 
Haroldsson, therefore, had, in a large measure, to 
do the work of his kinsman over again, and he did it 
with such energy that, in the end, he forced the 
expiring Asa faith, and the tribal magnates who 
founded their power upon it, into a mortal combat 
in which he himself succumbed, while the religion 
of Christ rose from his tomb, victorious. 

King Olaf was by nature well equipped for his 
mission. He had a robust frame, indomitable will, 
and great endurance. There was something in his 



2o6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

very build and look which indicated that he wft not 
to be trifled with. It was not the youthful enthusi- 
asm of an Olaf Tryggvesson which inspired his 
measures for the propagation of the faith ; but 
rather a firm, dogged determination to accomplish 
a task, the moral and political importance of which 
had strongly impressed him. We need not question 
his sincerity because in serving God he also served 
himself. All his habits and actions seem to show 
that he was by conviction and temperament a re^ 
ligious man. But a fanatic he was not ; and the 
legends which in later times clustered about his 
name have, by attributing to him an undue ardor, 
distorted his image. He was, in spite of his later 
sainthood, a strong-willed, ambitious, and worldly- 
wise man ; far-seeing in his plans, business-like in 
his methods, relentless in his hates, ruthless in his 
punishments. And yet, as we have seen him in his 
treatment of Rorek, he was by no means devoid of 
pity, and could, when occasion demanded, show him- 
self magnanimous. 

His severity, which the sagas comment upon, was 
never wanton ; but was in proportion to the magni- 
tude of the offence. Robbers, thieves, and vikings 
who plundered within the land he punished with 
death, no matter whether their birth was high or 
low ; because the extirpation of the old predatory 
spirit with its internecine feuds was the first condi- 
tion for the establishment of a united nationality. 

In appearance King Olaf was of middle height, 
large-limbed, broad-necked, of florid complexion, 
and inclined to corpulence. He wore a full red 



OLAF THE SAINT. 20/ 

beard, and his eyes were piercing and of great 
brilliancy. In spite of his stoutness, he was brisk 
in his motions and of active habits. He was a good 
judge of men, and staunch in his friendship to those 
who did him faithful service. He selected Bishop 
Grimkel, an Englishman, though probably of Norse 
blood, to elaborate a Christian law, and revise the 
previous legislation so as to bring it into accord with 
the teaching of Christ. Although himself no scholar, 
he valued theological learning, and showed great 
favor to the priests whom he brought over from 
England to instruct the people. Such instruction 
was indeed needed ; for during the journeys which 
the king undertook through the length and breadth 
of the land for the purpose of '^ inquiring into the 
condition of Christianity," he made the most dis- 
heartening discoveries. During his sojourn in Ni- 
daros he ascertained that the Tronders, in spite of 
their assertions to the contrary, were in the habit of 
celebrating the old pagan festivals and offering up 
sacrifices to Odin and Frey for good crops. The 
chieftain, Oelve of Egge, who had twice deceived 
the king in regard to the practices of the peasants, 
and himself participated in them, was slain, and a 
great number of others who had been similarly guilty 
were killed, maimed, or outlawed, and their estates 
confiscated. In Guldbrandsdale the peasants had the 
hardihood to send eight hundred armed men against 
the king, under the leadership of Alf, son of Dale- 
Guldbrand, the first chieftain in the valley. The 
battle was, however, scarcely opened when the peas- 
ants fled, and Dale-Guldbrand invited Olaf to hold 



208 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

thing y^ith. them and deliberate concerning the change 
of faith. To the king's request that the men of Guld- 
brandsdale should believe in the one God and be bap- 
tized, Dale-Guldbrand replied : 

'' We know not of whom thou art speaking ; for 
thou callest him a god whom neither thou canst see 
nor any one else. I cannot ask help of any one 
whom I do not see or know. Then we have a very 
different kind of god whom we can look at every 
day. The reason why he is not out to-day is that it 
is raining so hard. But I dare say that when you get 
sight of him you will be frightened, nay, quite terri- 
fied because of his might. But if there is any truth 
in what thou sayest, that thy God is so powerful, 
then let him arrange it so that to-morrow we shall 
have cloudy weather but no rain." 

The next morning the tJiing again met, and the 
sky was overcast, but no drop of rain fell. The 
king ordered the mass to be celebrated by Bishop 
Sigurd, who preached to the peasants about the mira- 
cles which Christ had wrought when he was on earth. 
On the third day the people again came to the 
tiling, this time bearing a great image of the god 
Thor, which they placed upon the green. The 
weather was still cloudy, but without rain. From 
out of the throng of the peasants Dale-Guldbrand 
arose and said : 

''Where is now thy god, king? He wears his 
chin beard pretty low now, and methiriks that thou 
art not so bold as thou wast yesterday, nor is the 
horned man at thy side who is called the bishop. 
For now our god has come who rules over all 



OLA F THE SAINT. 20g 

things, and he is looking at you with his fierce eyes. 
I see now that you are full of fear and scarcely dare 
look into his eyes. Therefore give up your folly 
and believe in our god who holds your fate in his 
hand." 

To this the king replied : 

" Many things thou hast spoken to us this day, 
and thou art wondering that thou canst not see our 
God. But I think he will soon come to us. Thou 
wishest to frighten us with thy god, who is both 
deaf and blind, and can save neither himself nor 
others ; who cannot stir from the spot unless he is 
carried. Now I have a foreboding that he will soon 
come to grief. For, behold ! Look eastward ! 
There our God is coming with much light." 

Just at that moment the sun burst through the 
clouds, and the peasants all turned toward the east. 
But instantly Kolbjorn the Strong, at a sign from 
the king, struck the idol with his club, so that it 
burst into many pieces. Out leaped rats as big as 
cats, snakes, and lizards, which had fattened on the 
delicacies with which the god had daily been fed. A 
terrible consternation seized the peasants when they 
saw what their god contained. They fled to the river ; 
but Olaf, who had foreseen this, had bored holes in 
their boats so that they were unable to float them. 
Quite subdued in spirit, they were compelled to return 
to the ///m^-meadow, where the king addressed them 
in these words ;***'< Now you see what 
power there was in your god, to whom you bore sil- 
ver and gold and bread and meat, and who it was 
that enjoyed it all. It was mice and snakes, vipers 



210 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

and toads. ^ * -J^ Take now your gold and orna- 
ments, which lie scattered on the ground, and bring 
them home to your wives, but hang them no more 
on logs and stones. Now I will give you the choice 
of two things. Either you shall accept the Christian 
faith or you shall fight with me this day. He will 
win to whom the god in whom we trust will give 
victory." 

The peasants were in no mood to fight ; and there- 
fore, after the discomfiture of their god, declared 
their faith in Christ and were baptized by the king's 
bishop. Priests were left behind to instruct them, and 
Dale-Guldbrand built the first church in Guldbrands- 
dale. 

After having with the same firm hand put down 
paganism in Hedemarken and Raumarike, Olaf 
called a great thing at Eidsvold, where the Eidsivia 
law was proclaimed and adopted for all the Oplands. 
It was his intention to revise the laws of all the 
judicial districts in the same spirit, and he naturally 
turned his attention to the western coast-shires, 
which belonged under the jurisdiction of the Gula- 
things law. But these shires were part of Erling 
Skjalgsson's fief, which extended from Lindesness 
to the Sogne Fjord. Having small faith in Erling's 
friendship, which on a previous occasion had been 
pledged to him, Olaf prepared to travel with a large 
force through his shires; and as the crops had partly 
failed in the northern shires, he forbade all exporta- 
tion of grain from the districts which he meant to 
traverse. This was merely a measure of self-pro- 
tection, and though oppressive in its effect, was 



OLAF THE SAINT. 211 

prompted by no unfriendly motive. Erling's 
nephew, the young chief Aasbjorn Sigurdsson, of 
Haalogaland, in spite of the prohibition, with the 
connivance of his uncle, bought malt and grain of 
the latter's thralls, and was in consequence deprived 
of his cargo by the king's steward, Thore Sel, at 
Agvaldsness. In return for this he killed the stew- 
ard in the king's presence, was seized, and sentenced 
to death, but forcibly liberated by his uncle. En- 
raged by this unexampled audacity, the king came 
near taking summary vengeance upon Erling, but 
allowed himself to be persuaded by Bishop Sigurd 
to make peace, on condition that Aasbjorn should 
surrender himself to his mercy. The second sen- 
tence was, however, according to the notions of 
those days, severer than the first. Olaf demanded 
of the young chief that he should perform the service 
of the man he had slain. Any personal service, even 
under a king, was held to be degrading and unworthy 
of a freeman. The royal stewards were usually men 
of low birth ; sometimes even thralls or sons of 
thralls. For a man of illustrious lineage to take the 
place of such a minion would be tantamount to ac- 
cepting a badge of servitude. Aasbjorn, therefore, 
broke his promise, relying upon Erling Skjalgsson, 
and his father's brother, the powerful Thore Hund 
of Bjarko, to shield him from the king's vengeance. 
In this, however, he made a miscalculation. For 
one day, as he was sailing in his fine ship along the 
coast, another ship passed him, from which a spear 
was hurled forth that transfixed him. This spear 
was thrown by a friend of the king. Aasbjorn's 



2 1 2 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA F. 

mother, Sigrid, made a great funeral feast over her 
son, and gave each of the guests gifts by which to 
remember him. Only Thore Hund of Bjarko re- 
ceived no gift. But when the time came for depart- 
ing, Sigrid accompanied him down to his ship and 
gave him a spear inscribed with strange runes. 

*' This spear it was," she said, " which pierced my 
son Aasbjorn. It is yet sticky with his blood. *^ '^ 
It would be a brave deed, if thou didst part with this 
spear in such wise that it stuck in the heart of Olaf 
the Big, and I declare thee as a nithing before all 
men, if thou dost not avenge Aasbjorn." 

Thore Hund remembered this injunction, six years 
later, at the battle of Stiklestad. 

There could now no longer be any question of 
peace between Olaf and the race of Erling Skjalgs- 
son. A decisive conflict was inevitable, and each 
party began to make preparations for utterly crush- 
ing the other. King Knut the Mighty, of England 
and Denmark, took advantage of this state of things, 
and by bribes and promises encouraged the discon- 
tented chieftains throughout the land to unite in re- 
volt against the tyrannical king. Secret messengers 
from Knut were sent with presents to nearly all the 
heads of the tribal aristocracy, and the friendliest 
reception awaited those of them who went to Eng- 
land. Two of Erling Skjalgsson's sons, who visited 
Knut in London, were quite dazzled by the splendor 
and friendliness of the English king. In thus ma- 
turing the revolt, Knut's first purpose was to punish 
Olaf for his insolence in refusing to consider his claim 
to Norway, which in an embassy (1024) he had threat- 



OLAF THE SAINT. 213 

ened to enforce. Secondly, It tallied well with his 
ambitious dream of uniting England and the three 
Scandinavian countries in one grand monarchy, which 
in the north might counterbalance the German and 
French power in the south. 

Olaf did not long remain ignorant of King Knut's 
machinations; and he took immediate measures to 
protect himself. He spent the winter (1025-1026) in 
Sarpsborg, and not, as usual, in Nidaros ; for he had 
learned that Knut was in Denmark and contemplated 
an invasion of Norway. Viken, being the province 
nearest Denmark, and having formerly belonged to 
the Danish kings, would naturally be exposed to the 
first attack. In order to strengthen himself further, 
he entered into an alliance with his brother-in-law, 
the Swedish King Anund Jacob, impressing upon 
him the probability that his own turn would come 
next, in case Knut gained possession of Norway. 
When Knut heard of this, he too sent an embassy to 
Anund Jacob, for the purpose of winning his friend- 
ship, or at least secure his neutrality. The embassa- 
dors supported their arguments with splendid gifts ; 
and King Anund was no doubt sorely tempted to 
listen to them. First they put two candlesticks of 
gold on the table. 

'' A very pretty toy is that," said Anund, '^ but I 
will not, in order to get it, break with Olaf." 

A golden platter of rare workmanship, and set 
with jewels, was placed before him. He gazed long- 
ingly at it ; but finally cried out : '' A glorious treas- 
ure is that ; but I will not sell King Olaf for a dish." 

The spokesman of the embassy, talking eagerly in 



214 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

his master's behalf, at last pulled out two gorgeous 
rings. 

'' King Knut has much shrewdness," ejaculated 
Anund, '' for he knows that I would fain win treas- 
ure, and that I know little of courtly custom. But 
King Olaf I have known since I was a boy, and 
learned to love him so much, that I cannot now for- 
sake him." 

Possibly it was this staunch attitude of Anund 
Jacob which discouraged Knut from waging open 
war against Olaf. At all events he went (1026) as 
a pilgrim to Rome, not as conqueror to Norway. 
In the meanwhile, his brother-in-law. Earl Ulf,'^' 
headed a rebellion against him in Denmark, and 
entered into an alliance with Olaf Haroldsson and 
Anund Jacob. Both thought this a convenient op- 
portunity for striking a blow at the threatening 
power of Knut, and gathered a fleet with which they 
ravaged the coasts of Halland and Skaane. They even 
in some places summoned the people to the thi?ig ?ind 
received their homage. These tidings reached Knut 
who promptly returned from his pilgrimage, and 
came within a hair of capturing the two kings who 
did not suspect that he was near. Knut's ships were 
so greatly superior both in size, number, and equip- 
ment, that it would have been folly to remain and 
await battle. Olaf and Anund, therefore, hastened 
along the coast of Skaane toward Swedish territory, 

* Ulf Jarl, the ancestor of a long line of Danish kings, was the 
grandson of Thyra, the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, by her first 
husband the Swedish Prince Styrbjorn. He was, accordingly, through 
his grandmother, a decendant of Gorm the Old, and of Ragnar 
Lodbrok. 



OLAF THE SAINT. 21 5 

hotly pursued by Knut. They put up in the Helge- 
aa, a short river, uniting a series of lakes, near what 
was then the boundary between Sweden and Den- 
mark. Olaf made haste to dam up the river where it 
issued from the lake, and filled the river-bed with a 
mass of trees and other obstructions. Late in the after- 
noon Knut sailed into the harbor, and found it de- 
serted. The allies lay with their fleet outside the har- 
bor, apparently ready for battle. It was, however, too 
late in the day to begin the fight, and Knut left part 
of his fleet outside to watch them. In the night the 
command was given to break the dam, and an enor- 
mous volume of water rushed down upon the Danish 
and English fleet, which broke from its moorings, and 
drifted seaward in disorder. A considerable num- 
ber of people were drowned, but the ships though 
much damaged were not wrecked. The confusion 
was, on the whole, less than had been anticipated, 
and Earl Ulf, seeing that there was a chance that 
Knut might save himself, turned traitor once more 
and went to his rescue. The Swedes and the Norse- 
men, perceiving that the Danish king with this 
accession of strength was too formidable, sailed away 
without making an attack (1027). Knut, instead of 
pursuing them further, sailed back to England, 
but in the following year returned with a greatly in- 
creased force. He had by his extensive system of 
bribes effectually secured the friendship of the dis- 
affected Norse chiefs, and therefore steered without 
hesitation to Nidaros where he was proclaimed king 
of Norway. He appointed his nephew Earl Haakon, 
the son of Earl Erik, regent in his absence. 



2l6 THE STORY OF NORJVAY, 

For Olaf there was now really nothing to do but 
to leave the country. He determined, however, to 
make a last effort to maintain himself and sailed with 
a few ships, and as many men as remained faithful 
to him, up along the coast, hoping that he might yet 
be able to rally a suf^cient force to expel Earl 
Haakon. When Erling Skjalgsson heard of his ap- 
proach, he called together his household troops, and 
manned his fleet. The king, however, who had no 
desire to fight with Erling, had already slipped by, 
but was no further in advance than that he could 
easily be overtaken. Erling, accordingly, started in 
pursuit, but allowed himself by a stratagem to be 
separated from his main force, and after a heroic 
fight lost all his men and was captured by Olaf. As 
he stood alone among a heap of the slain, his gray 
locks falling down over his shoulders, the king called 
to him : 

" Thou settest thy face straight against us to-day, 
Erling." '' Face to face do eagles fight," answered 
Erling ; '' wilt thou give me peace ? " 

Olaf, after some dehberation, declared that he 
would ; but on second thought half repented of his 
generosity. He took his axe and gently scratched 
the old man's cheek, saying : " Something must be 
done to mark the traitor to his king." 

One of the king's men who stood by suddenly 
raised his axe and cleft Erling's skull, saying: 

" This is the way to mark a traitor to his king." 

Thus died the mightiest chieftain in aU Norway. No 
representative of the tribal aristocracy, before or since, 
ever possessed such power as Erling Skjalgsson. 



OLAF THE SAINT. 21/ 

Olaf continued his voyage northward to Sond- 
more where a great number of his followers left 
him, while at the news of Erling's death enemies 
blocked his way wherever he turned. He saw that 
his last hope was gone ; and with a few friends fled 
through Valdalen across the mountains into Sweden, 
where he left his wife and daughter. Thence he trav- 
elled to Russia (1029), where he was warmly wel- 
comed by his brother-in-law. King Jaroslav, who had 
married Ingegerd, the sister of Anund Jacob. 

Norway was now a province of a foreign power. 
The separatistic tendencies of the old tribal mag- 
nates had triumphed over the national idea repre- 
sented by King Olaf. It was they and not King 
Knut who, in order to gratify their own greed for 
power, had destroyed the national unity. In order 
to secure their own independence, each in his own 
shire, they sacrificed the national" independence. It 
was natural that Knut, who based his dominion upon 
their support, should make them large concessions. 
He flattered Einar Thambarskelver, hinting that if 
Earl Haakon had not been his nephew he would 
have made Einar regent of Norway. Kalf Arnesson, 
the mightiest chief among the In-Tronders, he called 
over to England and assured him, too, that he was 
the man for the earl's place. For Earl Haakon, he 
said, was too conscientious to break his oath to Olaf 
Haroldsson, in case the latter should return and at- 
tempt to regain his kingdom. It may have been 
true that he vaguely distrusted the earl ; for on a 
slight pretext he summoned him to England and 
sent him on an expedition, the nature of which is 



2l8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

not entirely clear. From this expedition, however, 
Earl Haakon never returned, and it was reported that 
he had been drowned at sea with all his men. Bjorn 
Stallare, Olaf's friend, hastened to Russia with this 
intelligence, and found his old master at King Jaros- 
lav's court. Olaf asked him for tidings of home, and 
how his friends had kept their oath of allegiance. 

^' Some well and some poorly," answered Bjorn, 
and threw himself at the king's feet, embracing his 
knees ; " every thing is in God's power and in yours, 
king. I have received money from Knut's men and 
sworn him allegiance ; but now I will follow thee and 
not forsake thee as long as we are both alive." 

" Few men have remained faithful to me in 
Norway," said the king, sadly, '' when such men 
as thou art have been led astray. -^ * * " 

He was not at first ready to accept Bjorn's invita- 
tion to return to his kingdom. In his forced inac- 
tivity a resolution had half matured in his mind to 
become a monk and go on a pilgrimage to the Holy 
Land. An offer from Jaroslav to accept a Russian 
province in fief he declined. Religious meditations 
occupied much of his time ; and he acquired the 
reputation of being a holy man. While in this 
frame of mind, he had a vision in which he saw 
Olaf Tryggvesson who commanded him to go back 
to Norway and conquer it or die. He could now no 
longer hesitate. Much against the advice of Jaroslav 
and Ingegerd, he started out for Norway, leaving 
his young son Magnus at the Russian court. In 
Sweden he received permission from King Anund 
to collect whatever recruits he could ; but while he 




ST. OLAF, FROM THE ANTEPENDIUM OF THE ALTAR IN DRONTHEIM 
CATHEDRAL. REMOVED l6gi TO COPENHAGEN. 



220 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

accepted robbers and outlaws, if they would only be 
baptized, he had the courage to reject large bands of 
brave men who refused to renounce paganism. 

Tradition has preserved with minute fidelity a 
number of incidents of King Olaf's progress through 
Sweden to the fatal field of Vaerdalen. There is a 
melancholy radiance, as of the setting sun, about his 
figure as he returns with the gospel of Christ to his 
people who had rejected him. First, Bishop Sigurd 
came to meet him and strongly dissuaded him from 
entering his kingdom. But he would listen to no 
remonstrance. Through forests and wildernesses he 
broke his way; cheerful amid the greatest hardships, 
encouraging his people and never showing, except on 
a single occasion, the foreboding that cast its shadow 
over his soul. When he crossed the mountains be- 
tween Norway and Sweden, and he caught the first 
glimpse of the land of his birth with its rivers, moun- 
tains, and sunny valleys, he reined his horse and sat 
gazing, lost in thought, on the beautiful sight. A 
profound sadness was expressed in his features. At 
last the bishop roused him from his reverie, asking 
him what he was thinking. 

'' Strange things," answered the king, " have for a 
while been borne past me. It seemed to me, as if I 
looked not only out over Drontheim, but over all 
Norway ; and the longer the vision lasted, the wider 
it grew, until I surveyed the whole world, both land 
and ocean. Then it seemed to me that I recognized 
all the places where I had ever been before ; even as 
plainly I saw places where I had never been before ; 
— nay even some of which I had never even heard — 



OLAF THE SAINT. 221 

both inhabited and uninhabited, as far as the world 
goes." 

It is then told that the bishop, dismounting from 
his horse and embracing the king's foot, said : '' It is 
a holy man whom we are following." 

Among the few Norsemen of rank who had joined 
Olaf before he crossed the boundary, was his half- 
brother Harold, the son of Sigurd Syr. He was only 
fifteen years old, but large for his age. He led 720 
men under his banner. When the king's entire army 
was mustered, the day before the battle, it was found 
to number 4,100 men ; but 500 of these were sent 
away because they were heathen, and many of them 
no doubt joined the hostile army. The king woke 
early on the morning of the battle, and called the 
poet, Thormod Kolbruna-Scald, and asked him to 
sing to him. Thormod stood up and sang with a ring- 
ing voice the ancient Bjarkemaal, which resounded 
over forest and field. The army woke and was ar- 
ranged in battle array on the heights of Stiklestad 
in Vaerdalen ; the peasant army, 10,000 strong 
being seen approaching in the distance. With the 
battle-cry : '' Forward, Christ's men. Crusaders, the 
King's men ! " Olaf's warriors rushed down the hill- 
sides, and the peasant army stormed to meet them 
with the cry : '' Forward, forward, peasant-men ! " 
The fight was long indecisive, though the king's men, 
on account of the advantage of their position, had the 
upper hand in the first onset. The peasants, however, 
fought with dogged determination, and their supe- 
rior number told, the longer the battle raged. 
Olaf's ranks wavered and grew thinner. Then, with 



222 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

desperate courage, the king broke forth from the 
shield-burgh that surrounded him, and followed by a 
small band of devoted men, dashed against the front 
of the peasant host. One by one his men fell about 
him, and again and again his standard-bearer was cut 
down. Severely wounded, he stood leaning against 
a boulder, when Thore Hund sprang forward and 
plunged his spear into his abdomen. In the next 
moment Kalf Arnesson gave him a cut across the 
throat, which was the immediate cause of his death, 
though Thore Hund's spear had already dealt him a 
mortal wound. Then, so runs the record, the sun 
grew blood-red, and a strange red sheen spread over 
the landscape. Darkness fell upon the fighting 
hosts, and the sun grew black. A great terror took 
possession of the peasants, who saw in the eclipse * 
an evidence of the wrath of Olaf's God. 

With the king's death the battle was virtually at 
an end. The peasants remained in possession of the 
field. Wounded warriors of both parties crawled 
about among the trees and stones, and some reached 
a hut where a woman surgeon was busy washing and 
bandaging their wounds. Hither came also Thormod 
Kolbruna-Scald, whose left side had been pierced 
by an arrow. He sat down on a bench, and a man 
of the peasant army who stood by said to him : 
'' Why art thou so pale ? Art thou badly wounded ? " 
He answered in verse that he had got his wound 
from Danish weapons — a mocking allusion to the 

* This eclipse — lasting from I o'clock 31' p.m. to 4 o'clock 58', Aug. 
31, 1030 — fixes definitely the date of the battle. It was total in 
Vaerdalen. 



OLAF THE SAINT, 



223 



alliance of the peasants with the Danish king. The 
woman, not knowing how serious his hurt was, asked 
him to go out and get an armful of firewood. When 
he returned he looked white as a ghost. She begged 
to see his wound, and with a pair of tongs attempted 
to pull out the arrow, the shaft of which was broken 
off. But her attempts were futile. Then the scald 
took from his arm the heavy gold ring which the 




ST. OLAF AND THE TROLDS. FROM FRESCO PAINTING IN TEGELS- 
MORA CHURCH IN UPLAND. 

king had given him for his song and handed it to 
her. 

'' It came from a good man," he said ; '' King 
Olaf gave it to me this morning." 

Taking the tongs, he clenched them over the 
stump of the arrow and pulled it out. Pieces of 
flesh and red and white fibres adhered to the barbs. 
He looked at them for a moment and said : " The 



224 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

king has fed us well, for I am yet fat about the 
heart-roots " ; then fell back and died. 

The king's body was found by a peasant named 
Thorgils, who before the battle had promised Olaf 
to bury him if he fell. As later tradition reports, 
many miracles were wrought by the king's blood and 
by the mere touch of his lifeless hand. Tales with- 
out number were told of his marvellous powers in 
life as well as in death, and legends attributing to 
him the work of the Thundering Thor, have clus- 
tered luxuriantly about his name. He slew the 
trolds whom his church-bells annoyed, and turned 
them to stone. St. Olaf, with the flame-red beard, 
became not only the national saint, but also the na- 
tional hero. The tragic circumstances of his death, 
no less than his valiant work for the cause of Christ, 
imbedded his memory deeply in the people's hearts. 




CHAPTER XIV. 

SWEYN ALFIFASSON (103O-IO35). 

King Knut could not, with his extensive posses- 
sions, devote much time to the government of Nor- 
way. He therefore had his son Sweyn proclaimed 
King of Norway in his stead. Sweyn's mother, who 
accompanied him to his new kingdom, was Aelgifa, 
the daughter of an ealdorman in Northampton. 
The Norsemen, however, called her Alfifa, and her 
son Sweyn Alfifasson. This was, accordingly, what 
the chiefs had gained by their rebellion — to be open- 
ly governed by the mistress of a foreign king and a 
boy who was and could be nothing but a tool in her 
hands. It was a humiliation which they could ill 
brook. If Alfifa had had the faintest comprehension 
of the people whom she undertook to govern, she 
might possibly for a time have maintained her son 
upon the throne ; but when she proceeded to re- 
model the Norse legislation in the feudal spirit, she 
struck a blow at the very men who were the main- 
stay of her power. What the chiefs had desired was 
local independence — the right to manage their own 
affairs with as little interference as possible. They 
had hoped to obtain this liberty under a king who 
was too far away to trouble them. But now came 

225 



226 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Sweyn, and with him a number of Danes who be- 
came very important personages, and induced the 
king to modify the Norse laws so as to bring them 
more nearly into conformity with the laws of Den- 
mark. It was then enacted that no one should have 
the right to leave the country without the king's 
permission, and that confiscation of property should 
be the punishment for transgression. Man-slaying 
was likewise to be punished by confiscation. So 
also an inheritance coming to an outlawed man 
should go into the king's treasury. Ships, fisheries, 
pasture-land, nay, even the peasant's hearthstones 
were taxed, and a system of extortion was insti- 
tuted which was galling to the spirit of free men. 
Even the Christmas gifts which the peasants were to 
give the king, were fixed by law. The chief end of 
government seemed to be to transfer money from 
the people's pockets to those of the king. It was 
even asserted, though there was no law to that effect, 
that during Sweyn's reign the testimony of one Dane 
was sufficient to invalidate that of ten Norsemen. 

The central principle in this legislation was the 
feudal idea that all land belonged to the king, and 
that the possessors, as his tenants, had to pay for 
the usufruct. It was the same appropriation by the 
king of all allodial rights, which was encountered 
for the first time during the reign of Harold the 
Fairhaired. 

Alfifa, whom the people regarded as the author of 
the odious enactments, may have had her share in 
them ; but far less than was popularly supposed. It 
was, no doubt, Knut who meant to crush the rebel- 



SJVEYJV ALFIFASSON. 22 J 

lious spirit of the Norse chiefs, by whicli he had 
himself profited, and Sweyn and Alfifa were merely 
his agents. 

Under these circumstances it was but natural that 
the chieftains began to repent of their rebellion 
against King Olaf. Einar Thambarskelver, who 
prided himself on his absence from the battle of Stik- 
lestad, was especially active in awakening regret 
among the Tronders at his death, and indignation at 
the rule of the Danes. He sent for Bishop Grimkel, 
who was living as an exile in Sweden, and agreed 
with him upon a plan of action. The bishop sent 
for the peasant Thorgils, who revealed the spot where 
he had buried the king. Permission was obtained 
from King Sweyn to bring the corpse to Nidaros, 
where it was placed in a splendid sarcophagus and 
interred under the altar in the Church of St. 
Clement (Aug. 103 1). Although nearly a year had 
elapsed since the first burial, it was asserted that 
there was no trace of decay on the body and that 
the hair and the nails had grown. Einar and the 
bishop, at all events, encouraged such reports, and 
they grew in number and minuteness of convincing 
details. Grimkel now declared Olaf to be a saint, 
and Sweyn and Alfifa, though they raised many 
objections, dared no longer profess their disbelief. 
The 29th of July was set apart for the commemora- 
tion of his martyrdom. For the first time in their 
history the Norsemen felt themselves as one nation, 
united in their indignation against their foreign 
rulers and in their regret and veneration for the 
martyred king. 



228 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

If Sweyn and Alfifa were aware of the sentiment 
with which they were regarded, they chose to ignore 
it. They were, however, not prepared for open de- 
fiance, and the events of 1033 iTiust have taken them 
by surprise. In that year, a young man calling 
himself Tryggve, and professing to be a son of Olaf 
Tryggvesson and his wife Gyda, came from Eng- 
land or Ireland with a band of warriors and claimed 
the throne of Norway as his inheritance. Sweyn 
called upon the chiefs to aid him in punishing the 
pretender, but Einar Thambarskelver, Kalf Arnesson, 
and many other magnates, refused to follow him. 
With those who still recognized his authority the 
king sailed southward and defeated Tryggve in a 
short battle in Sognesund. On his return he and 
Alfifa met the Tronders at the tJiing and listened 
to their complaints, but could give them no satisfac- 
tion. Then Einar Thambarskelver said aloud and 
in the hearing of many : ^' I was not a friend of 
King Olaf ; but the Tronders proved themselves to 
be poor merchants when they sold their king and 
got in his place a mare with her colt. The king can- 
not speak, and his mother only wishes what is bad 
and has the power to do it." 

Alfifa rose to speak, but she could get no hearing. 
Einar Thambarskelver taunted her openly, and so 
hostile was the sentiment that she dared not take 
him to task. A sense of insecurity took possession 
of the king, and he and his whole household left 
Trondelag and took up their abode in the southern 
part of the country. His authority had practically 
ceased, though in name he yet remained king. In 



SWEYJV ALFIFASSON. 



229 



1034, Einar Thambarskelver, Kalf Arnesson, and 
several other chiefs started for Russia and invited 
Magnus, King Olaf's only son, to return with them 
and become king of Norway. They asked and re- 
ceived his forgiveness for their hostility to his 
father, and swore to be faithful to him and to shield 
him from all harm. Magnus, who was then ten 
years old, accompanied them back to his native land, 
and was received with enthusiastic homage at Oere- 
thing, where he was proclaimed king. Sweyn and 
Alfifa made vain efforts to raise an army, but as no 
one heeded their summons, were forced to flee to 
Denmark. Here Sweyn died in the year 1036. As 
his father, Knut, had died in 1035, his half-brother, 
Harthaknut, became the heir to his claim to Norway, 
and, as we shall see, soon took measures to en- 
force it. 





CHAPTER XV. 



MAGNUS THE GOOD (1035-IO47). 



Magnus Olafsson was an illegitimate child, his 
mother, Alfhild, being, according to one report, an 
Englishwoman of high birth; according to another, 
the queen's laundress. When he was born he was 
so small and feeble that it seemed as if he could not 
live many hours. It was in the middle of the night 
and no one dared to wake the king. His friend, 
Sighvat Scald, was therefore called, and he assumed 
the responsibility of naming the child Magnus, after 
Carolus Magnus, the German emperor. A priest 
was then found who baptized it. When the king 
heard of the occurrence he was very wroth, and 
chided the scald. There was no one in his family 
named Magnus, and- perhaps he even suspected that 
Sighvat had made a mistake in selecting the Latin 
surname of the emperor rather than his real name, 
Karl. It was under these unpropitious circumstances 
that the boy was born who became the heir to St. 
Olaf's kingdom and the love which a repentant people 
lavished upon his memory. He was not quite eleven 
years old when he was proclaimed king at the Oere- 
Z/^/;?^, but well grown and intelligent. He allowed 
himself, during the first years of his reign, to be 

230 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 23 1 

guided by the counsel of Einar Thambarskelver and 
Kalf Arnesson ; but soon gained sufficient indepen- 
dence of judgment to assert his own will. 

It was but a short time after the proclamation of 
Magnus as king that Harthaknut prepared to invade 
Norway. Magnus, who was eager to punish the 
race of Knut for their insidious plottings against 
his father, also made warlike preparations, apparently 
with the intention of invading Denmark. Whether 
any actual fighting took place is not known. It is 
not improbable that some insignificant skirmishing 
may have been done ; but before any decisive battle 
was fought, the chieftains in both countries inter- 
fered and persuaded the two youthful combatants to 
make peace. At a meeting at the Brenn Islands, at 
the mouth of the Gotha Elv, an agreement was made 
in accordance with which each made the other his 
heir and successor, in case he died, without issue 
(1038). This might, indeed, seem to be a remote 
contingency, but it actually came to pass four years 
later (1042) when Harthaknut died and Magnus was, 
without opposition, proclaimed king of Denmark at 
the N\hox^-tJiing, and received the allegiance of the 
people. Thus Norway and Denmark were for the 
first time united, and the descendants of Harold the 
Fairhaired were recognized by the Danish branch of 
Ragnar Lodbrok's race as their equals, as they 
already had been recognized by the branch gov- 
erning Sweden. 

Magnus must have been aware that it was to the 
sainthood of his father that he owed this recognition, 
and he lost no opportunity to show his reverence for 



232 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

his memory. He commenced the erection of a 
church in Nidaros, which was to bear St. Olaf's name, 
and made him a new sarcophagus, adorned with gold 
and silver and precious stones. It was natural 
enough that he should take pleasure in the society 
of those who had been nearest to his father and 
stood at his side at Stiklestad. But the hostility 
aroused by the battle and the events that led to it 
existed, in some measure, yet ; and one party began 
to fan the smouldering embers of distrust in the 
king's mind and incite him to vengeance against the 
other. Young as Magnus was, it is scarcely to be 
wondered at that he allowed himself to be influenced 
by this evil counsel. In spite of the amnesty which 
he had in Russia given to those who had borne arms 
against St. Olaf, he began now to punish all the 
leaders in the rebellion with great harshness. It was 
the Tronders, particularly, who had to bear the brunt 
of his wrath ; because it was they who had made 
common cause with Knut and had been foremost in 
driving the sainted king into exile. Kalf Arnesson was 
among the first to experience the changed temper of 
King Magnus. Jealousies had early arisen between 
him and Einar Thambarskelver, both of whom called 
the king their foster-son and prided themselves on 
possessing his confidence. Once, it is said, Kalf had 
seated himself in Einar's seat next to the king, 
whereupon Einar sat down upon Kalf's shoulder, 
saying : 

'' It behooves an old bull to be stalled before the 
calf." 

At a party at the estate Haug, in Vaerdalen, the 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 233 

king uttered to Einar a desire to visit the field where 
his father had fallen. 

"■ I can give you no information about that," 
answered Einar, '' as I was not present. But let 
Kalf ride along with you. He can give you full 
particulars." 

'' Then thou shalt accompany me, Kalf," said the 
king ; and Kalf, though he was very reluctant, was 
obliged to follow. 

When they reached the battle-field the king dis- 
mounted and asked to be shown the spot where his 
father had received his death-wound. 

*' He lay here," said Kalf, pointing with his spear. 

'^ Where didst thou stand then, Kalf ? " asked 
Magnus. 

" Here where I am now standing." 

" Then thy axe could well reach him," cried the 
king, flushing violently. 

'' My axe did not reach him," Kalf replied, jumped 
on his horse and rode away. He had already given 
orders to have his ship in readiness, loaded with all 
his movable goods. And as soon as he reached 
home he put to sea and sailed for the Orkneys. 
The great possessions which he left behind were 
confiscated by Magnus. 

Thore Hund escaped punishment by making a 
pilgrimage to Jerusalem from which he never re- 
turned. Haarek of Thjotta was slain with the king's 
consent by a private enemy, and many others were 
deprived of their cattle and otherwise molested. 
The odious laws which had been given by Sweyn 
Alfifasson were not repealed ; and the king acted as 



234 THE ST OR Y OF NOR WA V. 

if he regarded himself as the master of every one's 
goods, life, and Hberty. But the Norsemen were not 
accustomed to endure arbitrary conduct in their 
kings. A general dissatisfaction spread through the 
country, and threatened to break out in open re- 
bellion. In Sogn the peasants were already under 
arms, and in Trondelag a largely attended meeting 
was held at which the bitterest denunciation of the 
king found utterance. Happily, however, some were 
present who were yet kindly disposed to Magnus, 
and these determined to let him know how the 
people felt toward him. The question then arose as 
to who was to undertake this hazardous mission, for 
Magnus was hot-tempered and had, moreover, made 
up his mind to inflict exemplary punishment upon 
the rebellious Sognings. His friends determined to 
let chance decide. They drew lots, and the lot fell 
upon Sighvat Scald, who, in a song called the Lay 
of Candor, took the king earnestly to task for his in- 
considerate harshness, warned him of the conse- 
quences, and reminded him of his duties to the 
people, who had of their own accord made him 
their king. The song made a deep impression upon 
Magnus, and he was from that day a changed man. 
He gave up all plans of vengeance, became gentle 
and forgiving, and governed the land in accordance 
with the law. His kindness and charm of manner 
made him now so popular that scarcely enough could 
be said in his praise. The people called him Magnus 
the Good. 

When Magnus, in 1042, had become King of Den- 
mark, his ambition led him as the heir of Hartha- 



236 THE STORY OP NORWAY. 

knut, also to assert his claim to the crown of England 
Edward the Confessor, who was called to the throne 
at the death of Harthaknut, was in honor bound to 
disregard such a claim ; but it compelled him to 
keep a fleet in readiness to repel an expected Norse 
invasion. There is little doubt but that Magnus 
would have made the attempt to oust him, if the 
events in Denmark had not taken a turn which 
obliged him to abandon, for a time, all thought of 
conquest. Among the Danes who swore allegiance 
to Magnus and endeavored to win his favor was 
Sweyn Estridsson, the son of Earl Ulf and Estrid, 
the sister of Knut the Mighty. He was both on 
his father's and his mother's side descended from 
the race of Ragnar Lodbrok, and was therefore 
better entitled to the Danish throne than the King 
of Norway. Sweyn was like his father Ulf, a 
shrewd intriguer, smooth of speech, and fair of face, 
but false and treacherous. He was loud in protesta- 
tions of devotion to Magnus and succeeded in gain- 
ing his confidence. Contrary to the advice of his 
friends, Magnus made him his vassal and appointed 
him his earl, giving him the same fiefs that his 
father had had before him. It was to be his special 
duty to defend Jutland against the Wends and the 
Saxons. When the ceremony of investiture took 
place, Einar Thambarskelver cried out to the king: 
"Too great earl, foster-son; too great earl!" to 
which the king replied angrily : '' You do not credit 
me with any judgment or knowledge of men. I do 
not know what you mean by regarding some earls as 
too great, and some as nothing at all." 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 237 

Sweyn was scarcely out of Magnus' sight, before 
he made haste to justify Einar's apprehension. 
Having regained his father's fiefs and the power 
which they gave him, he caUed the Danish chieftains 
together at the thing in Viborg, and was proclaimed 
King of Denmark. Magnus, incensed at his treach- 
ery, started with a large fleet to punish him ; but 
Sweyn ran away, first to Sweden and later to the 
Wendic provinces along the Baltic. No opposition 
was, therefore, offered to Magnus, and after having 
chastised many who had acknowledged Sweyn as 
king, he started for Jomsborg, which had also 
rebelled against his authority. He stormed and 
destroyed the old viking nest, and killed and scat- 
tered its occupants. In the meanwhile an enormous 
army of Wends, among the chiefs of which was 
Sweyn Estridsson himself, was pouring in over Sles- 
wick and met Magnus at Lyrskogs Heath (1043) 
where, in spite of their superior numbers, they were 
overwhelmingly defeated. It is told that 10,000 
corpses covered the battle-lield. The victory, which 
was in a large measure due to King Magnus' per- 
sonal bravery, gained him a great prestige, and what 
was more, stemmed the tide of Slavonic migration 
in the North. If the Wends had then gained a foot- 
hold in Jutland, Denmark would probably to-day 
have been a Slavonic country, and the whole destiny 
of the Scandinavian North would have been changed. 
Magnus took up his winter-quarters in Sleswick ; 
but no sooner had he dismissed part of his army 
than Sweyn was again in arms, and was defeated by 
Maenus in two naval battles at A.iros and Helefeness. 



238 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

In the spring of 1044, when Magnus was twenty 
years old, he returned to Norway. His fame filled 
the North ; for so great things scarcely any king of 
his race had achieved at so early an age. In spite of 
his hot temper, he was well beloved by all his 
people ; for with all his vehemence, he was upright, 
generous, and noble. A pleasant story is told of 
him, which throws much light upon his character. 

In Magnus' guard there was a high-born Icelander, 
named Thorstein, son of Side-Hall. Like most 
of his countrymen he was not amenable to dis- 
cipline, and offended the king by going to Dublin 
without his permission. In return for this he was 
outlawed ; but, relying upon his friends and family 
connections, he returned to Norway, paying no heed 
to the judgment of outlawry. He brought with him 
some fine stud-horses, and offered them as a gift to 
Einar Thambarskelver, whose influence with the 
king was known to be great. Einar declined them ; 
but his son Eindride, not knowing of his father's 
refusal, accepted them with joy. He even invited 
Thorstein to be his guest for the winter and had the 
hardihood to bring him in his company to the king's 
Yule-feast. Ele was, however, persuaded by his 
father to return home with the outlaw, before the 
king had seen him. On the fourth day after Christ- 
mas, Einar, who was sitting at Magnus' side, ventured 
to put in a good word for Thorstein, to which the 
king answered : 

" Let us talk of something else : for I would not 
willingly anger thee." 

Four days later, Einar again mentioned the Ice- 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 239 

lander ; but the king with a perfectly friendly man- 
ner dismissed the subject. Then Einar let five days 
pass ; and once more asked that the Icelander be 
forgiven. 

^' We will not speak of that," said Magnus, with 
some irritation ; " I do not understand how thou 
canst presume to protect a man who has provoked 
my wrath." 

'' That was my son Eindride's doing rather than 
mine," replied Einar; *'but I did think that my 
prayer for a single man would have some weight 
with thee ; when we in all things have done and will 
continue to do what will promote thy honor. '^ "'' "^ 
I, my lord, shall be in an evil plight, if you will not 
accept atonement in money from my son for Thor- 
stein, instead of fighting with him. For I cannot 
bring it over my heart to carry arms against you. 
But this will I say, that I do not perceive that you 
remember how I went to ^find you east in Russia, 
became your foster-father, and have since supported 
and strengthened your kingdom, thinking late and 
early of how I could advance your honor. Now I 
will depart from the land, and no more aid thee. 
But there will be those who will say that thou wilt 
not be the gainer by all this." 

Thus spoke Einar, in anger, jumped up from his 
seat, and went toward the door. But the king arose, 
hurried after him, and flung his arms about his neck. 

'' Come back, my dear foster-father," he cried ; 
" never shall aught, whatever it be, have the power 
to break our friendship. Take the man in peace, as 
it may please thee." 



240 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

When Magnus had been king nine years, his uncle 
Harold Sigurdsson, the son of Sigurd Syr and Aasta, 
came to Norway and demanded half of the kingdom. 
Harold had, as we have seen, at the age of fifteen 
fought at Stiklestad, and had been severely wounded. 
After his recovery he betook himself to Russia, 
where for some years he held a command under 
Jaroslav, and went thence to Constantinople, where 
he became the captain of the Varangians, the for- 
eign body-guard kept by the Greek emperors. He 
was a man of gigantic frame, fair of face, with long 
blonde hair, and an imperious glance which betrayed 
the race from which he had sprung. According to 
the sagas, he made a sensation in Constantinople by 
his mere appearance, and his wit, strength, and reck- 
less bravery opened for him a brilliant career. As 
the chieftain of the Varangians, he participated in 
many campaigns against the Saracens in Asia and in 
Sicily, and accumulated great treasures. That some 
antagonism must have existed between him and the 
Greek General-in-chief, Georgios Maniakes, is evident 
from the anecdotes preserved in the sagas, all of 
which accord to Harold the glory for all victories, and 
express the contempt with which the Norsemen 
regarded the most exalted personage of the South- 
ern nations. That Harold's importance in these 
campaigns has been exaggerated by his Norse follow- 
ers, to whom the saga-men were indebted for their 
accounts, is natural enough ; but even allowing for 
exaggerations, it is evident that he made a great 
name for himself, and was powerful enough to bid 
defiance, when he was so disposed, to the Greek 




Mliiil l l l llli l iljl lllWllilli ilM^ 



MARBLE LION FROM THE PIR/EUS, REMOVED IN 1687 TO VENICE, 
WHERE IT NOW STANDS AV THE ENTRANCE TO THE ARSENAL. 
THE RUNIC INSCRIPTION, CUT BY SOME VARANGIAN, IS NOW 
HALF EFFACED AND ILLEGIBLE. 



242 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

commander. He chose, however, if the saga account 
is reliable, to outwit Maniakes rather than openly re- 
sist hirri. 

Harold's adventures in Sicily, where he invented in- 
genious stratagems for the capture of cities ; his love 
adventures with Maria, a relative of the Empress Zoe, 
the latter's jealousy and attempt to ruin him, his im- 
prisonment, fight with the serpent, flight, vengeance 
upon the emperor, etc., are all of the typical kind 
and, therefore, more or less suspicious. Many Ger- 
manic heroes, both Norse and German,"^ had adven- 
tures of this order, when they visited the Orient, 
and there was a curious uniformity in the fates that 
befell them, both in love and war. To make the 
similarity complete, it was to make himself worthy 
of Elizabeth or Ellisif, the daughter of Jaroslav, that 
Harold set out in quest of fame and riches ; and he 
did not fail to claim her on his return, and bring her 
back with him to the land of his fathers. He met his 
nephew, King Magnus, in Denmark, as he was sailing 
through the Sound along the coast of Skaane. His 
ship, in which he carried his treasures, was the most 
magnificent that had ever been seen in the North ; 
and made a sensation wherever it appeared. Mag- 
nus, when he saw the beautiful galley, sent men 
aboard to find out whence it came and to whom it 
belonged. A very tall and handsome man, with 
courtly manners stepped forward, and said that he 
was an embassador from Harold Sigurdsson, King 

* The German stories of " Herzog Ernst " and " Hugditrich," and 
particularly that of " King Rother," have many features in common 
with the saga records of Harold Sigurdsson. 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 243 

Magnus' uncle, and his errand was to learn how the 
king would receive his master. In response to this, 
the generous Magnus sent a message that he would 
receive his uncle with open arms, as he would expect 
to find a strong friend and supporter in a kinsman 
like him. The tall man was none other than Harold 
himself. A meeting was then arranged, and the two 
kinsmen were well pleased with each other. One 
there was, however, who was not pleased and that was 
Einar Thambarskelver. He foresaw what was com- 
ing, and when Harold presently advanced his claim 
to half the kingdom, he could scarcely restrain his 
wrath. Nevertheless, the king, who was most closely 
concerned in this demand, answered gently that he 
would not hastily dismiss his kinsman's request, 
but would be guided by the opinion of his coun- 
sellors. Einar, as the most important, was now asked 
for his advice and he arose, saying that if King Mag- 
nus was to cede half the kingdom of Norway to 
Harold, it was only fair that Harold should share his 
treasures with Magnus. This proposal did not prove 
agreeable to Harold ; he had not, he said, braved 
dangers and gathered wealth fo^ the purpose of en- 
riching his nephew's men. 

" But," rejoined Einar aptly, " thou wast faraway, 
Harold, when we won the land back from the race 
of Knut, and no desire have we now to divide it be- 
tween the chieftains. Hitherto we have only served 
one king at a time, and thus it shall continue to be, 
as long as King Magnus is alive and governs. I will 
do all I can to prevent thee from getting any share 
in the kingdom," 



244 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

The other counsellors agreed that this judgment 
was sound, and declared themselves in the same 
spirit. This was the beginning of the bitter enmity 
between Harold Sigurdsson and Einar Thambars- 
kelver which led to so many unhappy events in the 
near future. Harold, who in his victorious career 
had been unaccustomed to rebuffs, resented keenly 
his nephew's attitude toward him ; and, for the pur- 
pose of bringing him to terms, formed an alliance with 
Sweyn Estridsson. With his great wealth he had no 
difificulty in raising a considerable force, with which, 
in Sweyn's company, he attacked Denmark, ravaging 
Seeland and Funen with ruthless cruelty. But the 
moment he learned that Magnus was approaching 
with his fleet, he separated from his ally and returned 
in haste to Norway. To justify this breach of faith, 
he spread the rumor that Sweyn had tried to assassin- 
ate him. A man did actually, in the dead of night, 
row over from Sweyn's ship to that of Harold, and 
steal into the latter's cabin. But Harold, pretend- 
ing to expect an attempt upon his life, had put a 
log in his bed, covering it carefully with the bed- 
clothes. The assassin, creeping across the floor, 
struck his axe into the log and made his escape. 
The next morning Harold showed the log with the 
axe yet sticking in it to his men, and denouncing 
Sweyn's faithlessness, set sail for Norway. There 
was, however, a suspicion that he had himself arranged 
the whole affair. 

On his arrival in Norway, Harold sought his old 
friends and kinsmen in Ringerike, offering them great 
rewards if they would recognize him as king. But, 



MAGNUS THE GOOD, 245 

partly because Magnus was so generally beloved, 
partly for fear of the consequences, the chieftains 
held aloof from the new pretender and discouraged 
his aspirations. In Guldbrandsdale he met with a 
better reception, and succeeded in gathering a band 
of partisans who were ready to share his fortunes. 
Here he summoned the people to a tJiing, where his 
cousin Thore of Steig, a youth of fifteen years, pro- 
claimed him king. As soon as Magnus heard of his 
uncle's doings, he sailed to Viken. Here a battle 
seemed imminent, as Harold and his men were com- 
ing southward to attack the king. Magnus, how- 
ever, was reluctant to fight against his father's 
brother, and, after some negotiations, it was agreed 
that the two kinsmen should both be kings, govern 
together, and share equally the income from taxes 
and the royal estates (1046). Norway was, accord- 
ingly, not divided into equal parts, each with a separ- 
ate king, but the royal dignity was divided between 
two kings, who both exercised authority over the 
entire land. It was, as the future proved, a most 
disastrous precedent, which, however, Harold the 
Fairhaired himself had been the first to establish. 

In return for his nephew's concession, Harold con- 
sented to share with him his wealth, which is said to 
have been very great, thus enabling Magnus to prose- 
cute with the greater vigor his war with Sweyn Est- 
ridsson. The friendship between the two kings was, 
however, but of short duration. Not only their in- 
terests were in many points conflicting, but their 
characters were such as to invite antagonism. Har- 
old's greed of money, his extortion of the peasants, 



246 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

and his jealous insistance upon every right which 
Magnus had of his own accord bestowed upon him, 
must have aroused in the latter's mind many bitter 
reflections. And still, with his innate generosity and 
forbearance, Magnus refused to credit the many com- 
plaints that reached his ears. He was so averse to 
quarrelling that, where his dignity permitted, he 
rather ignored an affront than resented it. It seems, 
on the other hand, as if Harold foresaw that so 
strained a relation could not last, and perhaps even 
desired to put an end to it. To his imperious tem- 
perament it was galling to suffer any restraint in the 
exercise of power. 

Many incidents are related of his controversies 
with Magnus and his men. Thus, on one occasion, 
Einar Thambarskelver, in order to convince his fos- 
ter-son of Harold's untrustworthiness, went to a tilings 
which the latter had summoned, and witnessed the 
proceedings. Einar wore a gilt helmet and was ac- 
companied by sixty armed men. Harold, irritated 
by his presence, surpassed himself in the severity of 
his demands upon the peasants, and aroused much 
indignation. An old peasant named Toke, rose and 
said : '' I have now lived and borne the name of 
peasant in the reigns of several kings, but I supposed 
when we had one king who with full right had ac- 
cepted the kingdom and been proclaimed at Oere- 
thing, according to the counsel of the chiefs and 
with the consent of the people, and a man came 
later demanding the name and power of a king, that 
it is the former and not the latter who has the most 
power over us, his thegns. My advice is, therefore, ye 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 247 

peasants, that we await King Magnus' decision in re- 
gard to King Harold's demands and extortions, and 
that we continue in all things to accord honor to 
King Magnus." 

When the old man had finished, Einar Thambars- 
kelver arose and thanked him and all the peasants 
for their friendly disposition toward King Magnus. 
This was more than King Harold could endure. He 
sprang up and cried angrily : '' Loftily dost thou 
wear thy helmet now, Einar, and always thou show- 
est thyself as my opponent. Happy will the day be 
when thy helmet shall be laid low. As thou now art 
a head taller than others, thou shalt then be a head 
shorter." 

Disagreements, of a more or less serious character, 
between the kings themselves were of frequent occur- 
rence, and it was usually the prudence and self-control 
of Magnus which prevented an open rupture. No 
record has been preserved of the war which they 
waged together against Sweyn Estridsson. It is to 
be inferred that the greater number of the Danes 
took the part of Magnus against Sweyn, and that no 
battle of any consequence was fought. It is told 
that one day while the Norse fleet was lying close 
under land, a horseman, in splendid armor, came 
riding out of the forest, and began to exhibit his 
horsemanship, to the great admiration of the Norse 
warriors. When he had thus amused them for a 
while, he rode down to the edge of the water, and 
shouted : '' I am a traitor to King Magnus, but so is 
King Harold to me ; there is an immense difference 
between these kings." 



248 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

At that moment King Magnus came on deck, and 
recognized Sweyn. But Sweyn spurred his horse 
and vanished among the trees. No attempt was 
made to pursue him. 

" Sweyn Ulfsson is a goodly man," said Magnus, 
" and if he had as much people as he has courage 
and intrepidity, he would win more victories." 

It was the bitterness that rankled in Magnus' 
heart against his uncle which made him lenient in 
his judgment of Sweyn. And we shall see how this 
sentiment presently affected his action. He had one 
day gone ashore with many of his men, and was 
riding in the neighborhood of the village Alsted, in 
Seeland, when his horse took fright and threw him. 
He was flung with his head against a stump, and was 
stunned, but afterward apparently recovered. Never- 
theless, a morbid feeling took possession of him, and 
a foreboding of death darkened his mind. A dream 
which he had was rather the result than the cause of 
his melancholy presentiment. It seemed to him that 
his father, St. Olaf, came to him and gave him the 
choice between two things — viz., either to follow him 
now, or to live long and be the mightiest of kings, 
but load upon his soul a sin which hardly, if at all, 
could be forgiven. 

'' Choose thou for me, father," he seemed to an- 
swer. 

" Then follow me now," said St. Olaf. 

It is not hard to guess what the mortal sin was. 
That the temptation to resort to violence against his 
burdensome rival must have been frequently present 
to Magnus' mind, is scarcely to be wondered at. 



MAGNUS THE GOOD. 249 

That the temptation was resisted, is rather a matter 
of wonder. 

A few days passed, during which Magnus pondered 
the dream. Then, one morning, he woke up, burn- 
ing with fev^er. Einar Thambarskelver, who stood 
at his bedside, asked if he was ill. 

'' Not very ill, yet, dear foster-father," he answered. 

'' It would be a sorrow which we could never get 
over if we were to lose thee," said Einar. 

Magnus begged to be moved from one part of the 
ship to another; but changed his mind again and 
wished to be taken back to where he had first lain. 
Then Einar took alarm. 

'^ Say to thy friends now, my lord, that which is 
nearest to thy heart," he said. '' Give us good coun- 
sel ; for mayhap our converse will not be long." 

'' Dear friend," the king replied^ " I fear that this 
illness will soon make an end of our intercourse." 

When the rumor spread that King Magnus was ill, 
Harold came aboard his ship and inquired about his 
condition. 

. " Yes, in sooth I am ill, kinsman," said the king, 
*^ and I have one prayer to you, that you will not 
show disfavor to my friends." 

'' That is only my duty for your sake," replied 
Harold, '' but there are some of them who seem eter- 
nally sufficient unto themselves, and overlook me." 

" What boots it to speak of such things now ? " 
said Einar ; " whatever Harold may promise, he has 
already determined in his mind what he will do." 

Little was lacking that Harold got into a dispute 
with the dying king about the throne of Denmark, 



250 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



which Magnus had destined for Sweyn Estridsson, 
and the gold which they had shared between them 
when they shared the government. After having 
distributed gifts and keepsakes to his men, King 
Magnus died (1047), twenty-four years oid, after 
having governed Norway for twelve years and a half, 
and Denmark for five years. No sooner had he 
closed his eyes than Harold sent men to intercept 
the messengers which had been despatched to Sweyn 
Estridsson to inform him of his succession to the 
Danish throne. 

The death of King Magnus was announced to the 
fleet by the blowing of loors'^ and the saying was in- 
deed true, in his case, that he was mourned by all the 
people. 

* Loors are long Alpine horns, made of wood bound with birch- 
bark, or of metal. They give a powerful sound. 




POMMEL OF GILT BRONZE FROM THE VIKING AGE. 



^^ 


^■^ 


^Cf 


%^ 


^^^tZ 


s 


s 


m 


^^ 


^» 



CHAPTER XVI. 

HAROLD SIGURDSSON HARD-RULER (1O47-I066). 

As Magnus the Good left no sons behind him, 
Harold Sigurdsson was the only remaining descend- 
ant in the male line of Harold the Fairhaired, and 
therefore undisputed heir to the throne. For, al- 
though the monarchy in Norway had not from the 
earliest times been strictly hereditary, the idea had 
gradually gained acceptance that the land belonged 
by allodial right to the male descendants of its 
first conqueror. , In apparent, though not in real, con- 
flict with this idea, was the custom of proclaiming 
the king separately at the tJdng in each shire and 
personally swearing him allegiance, on condition of 
his promising to rule in accordance with law and an- 
cient usage. As we have seen, on many occasions, 
the tribal aristocracy never gave so blind an adhe- 
rence to the hereditary principle as to renounce the 
practice of dictating conditions and, in many in- 
stances, deciding the choice between the various 
aspirants for the crown. If it had not been for the 
unhappy precedent, established by Harold the Fair- 
haired, that not one but all the sons of a king, 
legitimate and illegitimate, should succeed him 
on the throne, this balance of power would have 

251 



252 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

prevented an arbitrary use of his authority, on the 
part of the king, and thus in the end have proved 
beneficial. In fact, the great principle of constitu- 
tional liberty is involved in this conflict of interests, 
and the natural opposition of an aristocracy to the 
encroachments of the crown. The situation in Nor- 
way, as well as the temperament of the people, was 
favorable to the gradual and uninterrupted develop- 
ment of a constitutional monarchy, such as the En- 
glish, and if the long civil wars growing out of the 
claims of rival heirs to the throne had not exhausted 
the land, four hundred years of political extinction 
would not have preceded the resurrection of the 
nation in the present century. 

Harold Sigurdsson soon showed that he appreci- 
ated the advantages of his position as the sole heir 
both of Harold the Fairhaired and St. Olaf. For 
St. Olaf's sanctity had shed new lustre upon the 
royal house, and greatly strengthened its hold upon 
the people. In fact, the later kings refer the source 
of their authority more frequently to their heirship 
of St. Olaf than to that of Harold the Fairhaired. 
When the tidings of King Magnus' death had gone 
abroad, his successor called a thing together and de- 
clared that it was not his intention to abide by his 
late nephew's decision to leave Denmark to Sweyn 
Estridsson. Denmark was his by right of inherit- 
ance, and he meant to go at once to Yxhorg-thing 
and proclaim himself king of the Danes. This 
declaration was not well received by the friends of 
King Magnus, and Einar Thambarskelver voiced 
their feelings, when he reminded Harold that it 



HAROLD HARD-RULER. 253 

was his first duty to take the corpse to Nidaros 
and bury it with the proper honors. The fleet then 
broke up, and Harold having but a small force left, 
had no choice but to accept Einar's advice. At 
Borgar-/////?^, and later at O^YQ-thing, he was, accord- 
ing to ancient custom, proclaimed king, no opposition 
being offered to his succession. But cheerfully the 
peasants did not offer him their allegiance, for 
they knew him well and expected nothing good of 
him. His ideas of government he had imbibed 
among the Southern races, which patiently bore tyr- 
anny, because they lacked the sense of dignity and 
the sturdy manhood of the North. He had, indeed, 
a more definite political programme than any of 
his predecessors, but it was not a programme which 
was in accord with the genius of a free Germanic 
people. 

Harold's first object, and the one which he pursued 
with indefatigable zeal throughout his reign, was to 
break the power of the tribal aristocracy. The influ- 
ence, authority, and calm defiance of those miniature 
kings were perpetually a thorn in his flesh. His tall 
growth and great physical strength, no less than the 
ease with which he had so far achieved all that he had 
striven for, had inspired him with a supreme self-reli- 
ance and a corresponding contempt for all forces and 
interests opposed to his own. The ruthlessness with 
which he carried out his purposes made him many ene- 
mies and procured for him \.h.Q suvwdivcic Haardraade,"^ 
i. e.y the hard ruler, the tyrant. What enabled him 

* Harold is referred to in English history as Harold the Haughty. 
German histories call him H. der Unbeugsame (H. the Inflexible). 



254 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

to maintain so stern a sway over a people, so jealous 
of their rights, was his superior intellect. " He 
was," says Snorre, '' extremely intelligent, so that 
all men are agreed that there has never been a more 
intelligent king in the North. Moreover, he was 
an excellent swordsman, strong, and skilled in the art 
of war, and altogether a man who knew how to ac- 
complish his purposes." 

Interesting in this connection is also his fondness 
for poetry and his skill as a scald. It is told that he 
sat up half the night with the blind Icelandic scald, 
Stuf Katson, and would not sleep as long as Stuf 
could recite to him. This little trait adds a vivid 
touch to his character and brings it closer to our 
sympathy and comprehension. 

As the leader of the opposition to Harold, Einar 
Thambarskelver had long been prominent. As the 
son-in-law of Earl Haakon, the friend of Earl Erik 
and the foster-father of King Magnus, he occupied an 
exceptional position and was highly respected. His 
personal qualites were also such as to increase the 
esteem with which he was regarded. In natural en- 
dowments he was fully King Harold's match, and in 
imperiousness and proud self-assertion he did not 
yield much to him. Moreover, he was well skilled 
in the law, and when the king, as often happened, 
demanded more of the peasants than was his right, 
Einar rose as the people's spokesman and checked 
the arbitrary exaction. It was not to be wondered 
at that Harold hated him, but it is a striking tribute 
to the esteem in which he was held, that the king 
refrained so long from molesting him. But rashness 



HAROLD HARD-RULER. 255 

was not among Harold's faults. He was fully ca- 
pable of forecasting the results of his actions. As 
yet he felt that too great a risk would be involved 
in an attempt to rid himself of his enemy, who lived 
on a war-footing and was prepared to meet emer- 
gencies. With a view to weakening his power, 
Harold, therefore, made the Icelander Ulf Uspaks- 
son his liegeman, and gave him far greater fiefs in 
Trondelag than Einar had. . Again, in order to 
break the solid front of the tribal magnates in 
that part of the country and divide their interests, 
he married the beautiful Thora, the sister of Ey- 
stein Orre, of the great race of the Arnmodlings.* 
The king was not then divorced from his first wife, 
Queen Ellisif, and it has therefore been supposed, 
that Thora was only his mistress. But it is not 
likely that her proud kinsmen would have allowed 
her to occupy such a position, f and it appears that 
the title of queen was everywhere accorded her. 
It is therefore impossible to escape the conclusion 
that Harold had, at the same time, two lawful wives. 
The tendency to subordinate all other considera- 
tions to policy, which Harold showed in his marriage, 
was also visible in his efforts to establish a rival saint 
to St. Olaf in the south of the country. The pres- 
ence of the sanctuary of the national saint in Tron- 
delag had tended to increase the natural predomi- 
nance of that province over the southern districts 
and to foster jealousies, w^hich, in an imperfectly 

* To this family belonged Finn Arnesson, who fought at St. Olaf's 
side at Stiklestad, and Kalf Arnesson, whom Magnus the Good exiled, 
f See Munch : " Det Norske Folks Historie," ii., p. 180. 



256 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

amalgamated nationality, are always rife. Viken, 
which had formerly belonged to Denmark, had 
never become intimately attached to the kingdom 
and race of Harold the Fairhaired ; and Harold 
Sigurdsson judged rightly that a local saint of his 
own family would accomplish the double purpose. 
Such a saint was soon fournd in the person of Hall- 
vard, the son of Vebjorn, and a cousin of the king. 
His history was not very remarkable, nor was his 
martyrdom, even with all its legendary embellish- 
ments, sufficient to warrant canonization. But it 
served the king's purpose well, and the regulation 
miracles began to manifest themselves in the usual 
fashion at St. Hallvard's shrine. Without submit- 
ting the question to the Pope, "the people" then 
proclaimed him a saint, and the king founded the 
town of Oslo, probably to shelter the new sanctuary 
(105 1 or 1052). The site of the town was chosen 
with excellent judgment at the end of the Folden 
Fjord, where Christiania, the capital of Norway, is 
now situated. 

When we consider the restless energy and power 
with which King Harold carried out his plans, both 
in internal and in foreign affairs, we cannot but de- 
rive a high idea of his ability* Whether, on the 
other hand, his activity was for the welfare of his 
subjects, is another question. Certainly, his long- 
continued war with Denmark was disastrous, both 
to himself and his people. His annual summer 
amusement consisted, for some time, in surprising 
the exposed ports on the Danish coast and harrying 
them with savage cruelty. At last, when both sides 



HAROLD HARD.RULER. 257 

grew tired of this aimless destruction, it was agreed 
that Sweyn Estridsson should meet Harold at the 
mouth of the Gotha Elv, and that the issue of the 
battle should decide in regard to the latter's claim 
to the throne of Denmark. At the time appointed, 
however, Sweyn failed to make his appearance, and 
Harold, after having waited for him in vain, sailed 
southward with his fleet, ravaging the coast of Jut- 
land, burning the great city of Heidaby (Sleswick), 
and carrying away a number of high-born women, 
besides an enormous booty (1049). -^^^ was far 
from expecting to be pursued by the Danes, and, 
accordingly, allowed his ships to scatter on their 
homeward way. Head-winds and foggy weather 
delayed the Norsemen, and one morning when 
they were laying to under the island of Leso, 
they saw a sudden flash through the fog which 
caused alarm. The king was called and asked 
what he supposed it to be. 

'' The Danish fleet is upon us," he said ; '' that 
which shines is the golden dragon-heads which flash 
in the morning sun." 

Resistance was not to be thought of, and flight 
seemed also hopeless. But the king's presence of 
mind did not desert him. He ordered the men to 
the oars, but the ships, which were heavy and swol- 
len from having been long in the water, made little 
headway, and, as the fog lifted, the Danish fleet, 
counting several hundred galleys, was seen bearing 
down upon them. Harold then commanded his men 
to nail bright garments and other precious things to 
logs and throw them overboard. The Danes, who 



258 THE SrORY OF NORWAY. 

could not resist the temptation to stop and pick 
them up, thereby lost time, and were rebuked by 
Sweyn for their folly. Again the pursuit began, 
and Harold was obliged to throw overboard malt, 
beer, and pork, in order to lighten his ships. Never- 
theless, Sweyn was still gaining upon him, and Har- 
old's own dragon-ship, which was the hindmost, was 
in danger of being captured. Then, in sheer des- 
peration, he made rafts out of barrels and boards, 
put the Danish matrons and maidens upon them, and 
lowered them into the sea. One after another of these 
rafts was sent out at intervals, and the pursuers seeing 
their wives and daughters stretching out their arms to 
them, crying to be rescued, and some even struggling 
in the water, could not forbear to pause and save 
them. Thus Harold escaped, and Sweyn cursed his 
ill-luck. Nevertheless, when he captured some lag- 
gards among the Norse galleys, he refused to take 
vengeance upon them. 

During a later expedition to Denmark (1060) 
Harold displayed again the same presence of mind, 
and daring invention. He had just beaten Sweyn in 
the battle of Djursaa, and felt perfectly safe in enter- 
ing the long and narrow Lim-Fjord for purposes of 
plunder. But Sweyn, hearing that his antagonist 
had gone into such a trap, hastily gathered what 
forces he could command and laid to at Hals, where 
the fjord is so narrow that a few ships could easily 
engage a much superior number. Harold, perceiving 
that he was caught, gave orders to sail in through 
the fjord to the very end. Here a narrow isthmus 
separates the fjord from the North Sea. With 



HAROLD HARD-RULER. 259 

enormous difficulty he now dragged his ships across 
the isthmus, and sailed gaily northward while Sweyn 
lay guarding the empty cage from which he had 
escaped. To make, however, an end of this waste- 
ful and unprofitable warfare, Harold proposed to 
Sweyn that they should stake their kingdoms in a 
decisive battle in the Gotha Elv. 

It is not perfectly clear whether Sweyn accepted 
this challenge, though there is a probability that he 
did, as Harold would scarcely otherwise have gone 
to the place appointed for the battle. As on the 
former occasion, however, he waited in vain for the 
foe, and, dismissing the greater part of his force, 
sailed with one hundred and eighty ships down 
along the coast of Skaane until he came to Nis-aa, 
where he was surprised by Sweyn with a fleet of 
three hundred and sixty ships. A bloody battle 
was fought, lasting through an entire night (1062), 
and ending with the complete rout of the Danes. The 
victory was in a large measure due to the Norse chief- 
tain Haakon Ivarsson, a man whom Harold had 
treated with harshness, but who, in the king's need, 
nevertheless, came to his rescue. Sweyn, too, owed 
his safety to Haakon, on board whose ship he sought 
refuge, and by whose aid he made his escape. 

Great as the victory at Nis-aa was, its results, as 
far as Harold was concerned, proved insignificant. 
It was vain to suppose that Sweyn, as long as he had 
any power of resistance, would renounce his throne ; 
and even if he had been willing to abide by such an 
agreement, the Norsemen's many plundering expe- 
ditions had made them so hated in Denmark that an 



26o THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 

army of occupation would have been needed to keep 
the land under their sway. They were, however, no 
less weary than the Danes of the incessant hostilities, 
and much against his will, Harold was forced to make 
peace at Gotha Elv in 1064. He recognized Sweyn 
as king of Denmark, and promised no more to 
molest him. 

The excessive burdens which Harold had imposed 
upon his people, in order to obtain the means to 
carry on this war, had produced great discontent 
among the peasants, and the important domestic 
events which preceded the peace will now claim our 
attention. During the prosecution of the war nothing 
irritated the king more than the captious criticism 
and opposition of the chieftains, and particularly of 
their leader, Einar Thambarskelver. Einar, with his 
six hundred men-at-arms, following him wherever he 
went, was the personified defiance of the king's author- 
ity; and Harold, when he once saw him land at the pier 
in Nidaros, flaunting his power in his face, is said to 
have exclaimed in verse : " Here I must see the 
haughty Einar land with a band of hus-carles so 
large that many an earl would have been satisfied 
with less. He thinks, perhaps, himself to mount the 
throne ; and he will not stop until he has deprived 
me of my kingdom, unless he has first to kiss the 
thin lips of the axe." 

Though this supposition may have been un- 
founded, it is very sure that Einar shunned no 
opportunity for manifesting his hostility to the king. 
Once he broke up a meeting when Harold was 
present, and with his armed retinue freed a convicted 



HAROLD HARD-RULER. 26 1 

thief who had once been in his service. Another 
time he forced the king, by threatening an attack, to 
surrender a great treasure which once had been found 
in the ground, although the law adjudged all 
property thus acquired to the king. Einar, however, 
claimed that some runes on the lid of the chest, con- 
taining the treasure, showed it to have belonged to 
his father-in-law, Earl Haakon, whose only surviving 
heir was his wife Bergljot. 

The king could scarcely be blamed for resenting 
such insolence, but the means he chose to get even 
with his enemy was unworthy of him. He had, by 
chance, captured some Danish men who had in their 
possession King Sweyn's seal. It is not improbable 
that they were secret emissaries from the Danish 
king, who was perhaps trying the tactics of his uncle 
Knut, whose bribes had once alienated the Norse 
chieftains from Olaf the Saint. It now occurred to 
Harold that he might use these men to test the dis- 
position of the chieftains toward him and, what was 
especially important, gain a just reason for destroy- 
ing those who should prove to be traitors. It was 
particularly against Einar Thambarskelver that this 
plot was directed. The men, purporting to come 
from King Sweyn, brought forged letters full of 
flattering assurances, and a large sum of money 
which they offered Einar as a pledge of the king's 
friendship. But he was equal to the test. ''Every one 
knows," he said, '' that King Harold is not my 
friend, while King Sweyn often speaks kindly of me, 
and I would fain be his friend. But if he comes to 
■Norway with an army to fight King Harold and 



262 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

harry his kingdom, I will make him all resistance in 
my power, and I will help King Harold, with all tiie 
force at my command, to defend his kingdom." 

When the Danes returned with this message to 
King Harold, he said : 

'' It was to be expected that he would answer like 
a man of honor, though not out of love for me." 

There were other surprises in store for the king on 
this occasion. His friend and kinsman, Thore of 
Steig, who had first recognized his claim to the king- 
dom, accepted the bribe, and when informed that 
Harold was coming to punish him, he went cheer- 
fully to meet him, and handed him the money, say- 
ing : '' A short while ago, there were some Danish 
men at my house who brought me friendly letters 
and money from King Sweyn. I accepted the 
money, because I found it proper that you should 
receive what foreign kings were using to steal your 
country from you." 

This was so shrewd an act that it extorted from 
Harold, even if he did see through it, a reluctant 
admiration. 

A third man, — a peasant, named Hogne Lang- 
bjornsson — to whom the emissaries came, made them 
this answer : 

'' I did not think King Sweyn had heard of me, 
who am only a common peasant, but my answer to 
him is this : that if he comes to Norway with war- 
shield, no peasant's son shall do him more harm 
than I." 

When this reply was reported to Harold he was 
greatly pleased, and presently offered Hogne, as a 



HAROLD HARD-RULER. 263 

reward for his fidelity, the title of liegeman, which 
was the highest dignity next to that of earl. But 
Hogne was also proof against this temptation. 

''AH the friendship which you show me, my lord," 
he said, *' I accept with thanks. But the title of liege- 
man I will not have, for I well know how things will 
go. When the liegemen came together they would 
say : ' Hogne shall have the lowest seat, for he is 
only of peasant race, and thus the lowest of the liege- 
men.' My dignity would then not bring me honor, 
but shame. Far greater honor it is to be called a 
peasant and have the peasants say when they come 
together, that Hogne is the foremost among them." 

It is this sturdy sense of independence among 
peasants which makes Norwegian history unlike 
the history of any other country, and Norway the 
fountain-head of constitutional liberty in Europe. It 
was upon this rock that feudalism was wrecked in 
Norway, while it sailed triumphant down the current 
of history in Sweden, in Denmark, and all other 
European lands. 

King Harold could not help recognizing this proud 
integrity, even when found in his enemies. He was 
more kindly disposed even toward Einar Thambar- 
skelver after having become assured of his loyalty. 
In order to put an end to all differences between 
them, he invited the old man to a feast at the royal 
mansion in Nidaros, gave him the seat of honor next 
to himself, and entertained him in princely fashion. 
The horns were industriously drained, and Einar, 
who was nearly eighty years old, grew sleepy. As 
ill-luck would have it, the king was just then telling 



264 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

of his adventures in Constantinople, and he regarded 
the sleepiness of his guest as a mark of disrespect. He 
directed one of his men to play a rough trick on the 
sleeper, in return for which Einar, the next day, had 
the man slain. The old enmity then broke out afresh ; 
and Harold, weary of the humiliations he had had to 
suffer, determined to rid himself of his foe. Under 
pretence of wishing to make peace with him, he 
invited him to a meeting. Einar came with his son 
Eindride and a large crowd of followers. The king, 
having concealed assassins in the hall, had covered 
up the smoke-hole so as to exclude the light. As 
Einar entered, leaving his son at the door outside, he 
expressed his astonishment at the darkness. 

*' Dark it is in the king's hall," he said. 

The murderers immediately fell upon him and cut 
him down. 

'' Sharp are the fangs of the king's hounds," he 
cried. 

Eindride, hearing his father's voice, rushed in to 
defend him, but was instantly surrounded and slain. 
In a few minutes the king strode out of the hall, and 
ordered his men to prepare themselves for an attack; 
but Einar's followers stood irresolute, and made no 
sign to pursue him, as he walked down to the river 
with his guard and rowed out to the fjord. The old 
Bergljot, when she heard of the king's treachery, 
rushed through the streets of the town, vainly call- 
ing upon the people to avenge her husband and son. 
She arrived at the king's mansion just in time to see 
Harold's boat gliding down the river. " Now we miss 
my kinsman Haakon Ivarsson," she cried ; '' for if he 



HAROLD HARD-RULER, 265 

stood here on the slope, Einar's slayer would not be 
rowing down the river." 

Harold acted wisely in betaking himself away after 
having aroused the wrath of the Tronders by this 
dastardly deed. He went to his kinsman by mar- 
riage, Finn Arnesson, and persuaded him to use his 
influence to quiet the people ; in return for which 
he promised to recall his brother Kalf, and restore to 
him his property and dignities, of which King Mag- 
nus had deprived him. Moreover, Finn had to un- 
dertake a mission to Haakon Ivarsson, and induce 
him to forego his vengeance for the slaying of his 
kinsmen, and accept, as blood-wite, any favor which 
it was in the king's power to bestow. Finn accom- 
plished both these missions with success ; quieted the 
Tronders, and reconciled Haakon, who, as the price 
of peace, demanded the hand of Ragnhild, the 
daughter of Magnus the Good, in marriage. Never- 
theless, the king had lost much in the estimation of 
the people by murdering Einar. The slaying itself 
they would readily have condoned ; but the breach of 
faith they regarded as a crime, unworthy of an honor- 
able warrior. Harold's disregard of faith and honor 
brought about a general disregard of moral obliga- 
tions. Toward a treacherous king treason seem.ed 
pardonable. One after another of his liegemen, dis- 
covering his duplicity, turned away from him, left 
their country, and went to King Sweyn in Denmark, 
who received them well. The first who took this 
course was Finn Arnesson ; Kalf, his brother, was a 
brave and able man, and King Harold seemed after 
his return to be kindly disposed toward him. For 



266 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

all that, during an expedition to Denmark, he sent 
him ashore with a small band of men and com- 
manded him to attack a much superior Danish force, 
promising to come to his aid, if necessary. Kalf 
obeyed, and was killed with nearly all his men. 
Then, at last, when there was no need of it, the king 
landed and made an incursion for plunder into the 
country. Later, he boasted of having caused the 
death of thirteen men, and Finn was not wrong in 
supposing that his brother was one of them. He 
was so incensed at the king's treachery that he could 
no more endure to meet him face to face. He sailed 
with all his movable possessions to Denmark, where 
King Sweyn made him Earl of Halland, a province 
which now belongs to Sweden, and borders on the 
Norwegian province Viken. 

A similar experience with King Harold had 
Haakon Ivarsson. He wooed Ragnhild, the daugh- 
ter of King Magnus, but received the reply that she 
would not wed any man less than an earl. Haakon 
then begged the king to make him an earl ; but Har- 
old answered that he did not wish to have more than 
one earl at the time in his kingdom. Full of wrath, 
Haakon then betook himself to King Sweyn ; but in 
the battle of Nis-aa again joined Harold, and saved 
him from defeat. His obligations toward Sweyn he 
also discharged by rescuing him after the battle, and 
sending him in safety to his friends. The fame which 
Haakon acquired by these exploits, so far from bring- 
ing him the favor of the king, rather excited his 
hostility. Harold did, indeed, persuade Ragnhild 
to marry him, and positively promised to make him 



HAROLD HARD-RULER. 26/ 

an earl ; but, after the wedding had taken place, he 
put him off on one pretext or another, and when 
Haakon pressed him for an answer, gave him a blank 
refusal. His wife, who had expected a different re- 
sult, cried out to him joyously, as he returned : 
"Welcome, my Earl." He was forced to tell her 
what had occurred ; and as he would not have the ap- 
pearance of having won her under false pretences, he 
offered her divorce, and the right to keep all his 
property. This was a generous offer, but Ragnhild 
refused to accept it. Haakon, then, began secretly 
to dispose of his property, in the hope of escaping 
from the country without attracting the king's at- 
tention. Harold, however, got wind of his purpose, 
and started out with two hundred and forty men, in 
the night, to kill him. Being warned by a friend, he 
made his escape into Sweden, and thence to Den- 
mark. Sweyn made him Earl of Halland after Finn 
Arnesson's death ; and the Swedish king, Steinkil, 
gave him the two large provinces, Vestgotland and 
Vermeland. Haakon was now in possession of al- 
most royal power, and he availed himself of his posi- 
tion to do as much damage to King Harold as 
possible. In the Oplands he had always been popu- 
lar, while the king was much disliked for having 
deprived the peasants of certain privileges, bestowed 
upon them by Olaf the Saint. Haakon, therefore, 
had the audacity to levy taxes in this province, and 
when the king's tax-gatherers came, they were in- 
formed that there was no money due to him, as the 
taxes had been paid to Earl Haakon. But King 
Harold was not the man to pocket such insults. He 



268 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

gathered an army, invaded Sweden, and defeated 
Haakon and the Vestgoths ; and the Oplamders he 
punished with exemplary severity. 

In the year 1066, Earl Tostig, the brother of the 
English King Harold Godwineson, came to Norway 
to enlist Harold Sigurdsson's aid in an attempt to 
conquer England. He had been on a similar errand 
in Denmark, but had there met with small success. 
Sweyn Estridsson declared that he had no ambition 
to imitate the deeds of his uncle, Knut the Mighty ; 
but would be quite content if he could keep and de- 
fend his own kingdom. Harold Sigurdsson, who 
never was averse to adventurous undertakings, lent a 
more favorable ear to the earl's representations, and 
in September, 1066, sailed for England with the 
largest fleet which up to that time had ever left the 
shores of Norway. About twenty thousand warriors 
embarked, and with the contingent which he exacted 
from the earls of the Orkneys, and Earl Tostig's own 
contribution, the entire force must have amounted 
to three hundred or three hundred and fifty ships 
and thirty thousand men. His queen, EUisif, and 
his two daughters, Maria and Ingegerd, whom he 
had brought with him, he left on the Orkneys, and 
himself sailed down along the coast of Scotland to 
Northumberland. At Fulford he was met by an 
army under the Earls Markere and Eadwine, and 
won a great victory, whereupon the city of York 
surrendered. He encamped at Stamford Bridge, 
about seven miles from York ; but left about one 
third of his army, under command of his son Olaf, 
to guard the ships. The weather was warm, and the 



HAROLD HARD-RULER, 269 

men, having no thought of danger, did not wear their 
armors. At Stamford Bridge, however, they were 
surprised by a large army, led by Harold Godwine- 
son. Tostig advised a speedy return to the ships ; 
but Harold Sigurdsson, being too proud to turn his 
back to any foe, gave orders to await the attack of 
the English. While the army was being arranged in 
battle array, twenty English horsemen came riding 
toward them, and one of them asked if Earl Tostig 
was present. 

" It is not to be denied that you will find him 
here," answered Tostig. 

" We bring thee this greeting from thy brother 
Harold," said the Englishman, " that he offers thee 
peace and Northumberland ; nay, he is not indis- 
posed to grant thee one third of his kingdom, if he 
can gain thy friendship on no other terms." 

'' This, in sooth, is another offer than the scorn 
and strife which were offered me last autumn. "^ '^ '^ 
Suppose, now, that I accept this proposal ; what does 
then my brother offer the King of Norway ? " 

'* He has intimated how large a piece of England 
he will grant to King Harold Sigurdsson ; it is the 
space of seven feet, or so much more as he is taller 
than other men." 

'' If such is the case," Tostig rejoined, ''then ride 
back and bid King Harold commence the battle." 

Harold Sigurdsson, who had listened to this col- 
loquy, asked Tostig who the spokesman of the Eng- 
lishmen was. 

" That was my brother, Harold Godwineson him- 
self," answered the earl. 



270 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

^' Too late did I learn that," said King Harold. 

The English cavalry made the first onslaught, but 
were repulsed. Thinking that their retreat indicated 
a general flight, the Norsemen started in pursuit^ 
thus breaking up their battle array, which it was the 
king's intention to preserve until the expected re- 
inforcements arrived from the ships. King Harold 
fought with berserkir fury, rushing into the thick of 
the fray and hewing savagely about him. The Eng- 
lish ranks broke, and every thing indicated a victory 
for the Norsemen, when the king's throat was pierced 
by an arrow, and he fell from his horse dying. Tos- 
tig now assumed command, after having refused an 
armistice, offered by his brother. He fought bravely 
for a while, and the Norsemen, weary and wounded 
though they were, shouted their battle-cry and rushed 
forward once more, eager to avenge their king. 
Then Tostig, too, was cut down, and the wide battle- 
field was covered with the bodies of the slain. Just 
then, Eystein Orre, King Harold's brother-in-law, 
arrived with reinforcements, and a short and des- 
perate combat ensued, until he, too, fell. Under 
cover of the twilight a small remnant of the great 
army succeeded in reaching the ships. One man, 
named Styrkaar Stallare, had got hold of a horse 
and dashed furiously away over the fields, arrayed in 
his shirt and a helmet. His clothes had been torn 
off him in the heat of the combat. A cold wind was 
blowing, and chilled him to the bone. On his way, 
he met an English yeoman, dressed in a warm jerkin 
of sheepskin. Styrkaar asked him how much he 
would take for the garment. 



HAROLD HA RD-R ULER. 



271 



" I won't sell it to thee," answered the yeoman, 
" for I know thee by thy speech that thou art a 
Norseman;" 

'' If that 's so," said Styrkaar, " what wilt thou 
then do ? '* 




THE OLD MAN OF HOY, ON THE ORKNEYS. 

" I '11 kill thee ; but unhappily I have no weapon 
that will avail me." 

'' Well, since thou seest that thou canst not kill 
me," rejoined the Norseman, " let me try if I can't 
kill thee," 



272 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

And raising his sword, he struck off the yeoman's 
head and made off with his jerkin. 

For many years after this battle, heaps of human 
bones lay scattered over the fields, for no one stayed 
to bury the dead. The landing of William the Con- 
queror (September 29th) called Harold Godwineson 
to Hastings, where the fruits of the victory at Stam- 
ford Bridge were lost. 

Olaf Haroldsson, Harold Sigurdsson's son, steered 
his course first to the Orkneys, where his half-sister 
Maria, in the meanwhile, had died. There he re- 
mained during the winter and spring, and sailed the 
following summer, with Queen Ellisif and his sister 
Ingegerd, to Norway. Of all the splendid fleet 
with which his father had sailed away only twenty- 
four ships returned. 

King Harold was fifty-one years old when he fell. 
In spite of the discontent of the chiefs, Norway took 
great strides, during his reign, toward a settled inter- 
nal condition. The tribes were being welded into a 
people. In every branch of the administration the 
king's strong hand was felt. His wars, though in 
one sense disastrous, tended, on the whole, to give 
Norway a secure place among the nations. A long 
controversy which he had concerning ecclesiastical 
affairs with Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen ended 
in his triumph, and though no formal decision was 
made, the Norwegian Church ceased, for a while, to 
recognize the supremacy of the see of Bremen. If 
King Harold had been as noble as he was able, he 
would have left a greater name behind him. 




CHAPTER XVII. 

OLAF THE QUIET (kYRRE) (1066-IO93) AND MAGNUS 
HAROLDSSON (1066-1069). 



On his return to Norway, Olaf Haroldsson found 
his elder brother Magnus, who had already been 
acknowledged as king before his father's death, in 
possession of the government. After some negotia- 
tions it was agreed that the two brothers should 
divide the kingdom between them — Magnus taking 
the larger portion toward the north and west, and 
Olaf contenting himself with Viken. If this division 
was founded upon the equal allodial rights of the 
brothers, it was obviously unfair. But Olaf, being 
averse to quarrelling, accepted it, as far as we know, 
without protest. 

The campaign to England had largely exhausted the 
resources of the country ; and Sweyn Estridsson of 
Denmark thought that the opportunity was now favor- 
able for avenging the wrongs which he had suffered at 
the hands of King Harold. The brothers then made 
levy in mass from all the country, but Sweyn suc- 
ceeded in engaging Olaf with his division of the 
fleet, off the coast of Halland (1067), before Magnus 
had joined him. The battle must have been inde- 
cisive ; for both sides claimed a victory. It is, how- 

273 



274 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

ever, probable that Olaf suffered the more, as he 
was the first to propose peace. Magnus had, in the 
meanwhile, come, and their allied fleets were, in all 
probability, equal or superior to Sweyn's. At all 
events, Sweyn had suddenly lost the desire to prose- 
cute the war; and a peace was made at Konghelle 
(1068), at which assurances of friendship and good- 
will were exchanged. Olaf is said to have borne his 
part in the negotiations with a firmness and intre- 
pidity which inspired Sweyn with respect. As a 
first result of the meeting, two marriages were ar- 
ranged, viz.: one between Harold Hard-ruler's widow, 
Ellisif, and King Sweyn, and the other between Olaf 
and Sweyn's daughter, Ingrid. 

It is not known whether Magnus was present at 
the peace of Konghelle. If he was, his ill health 
must have prevented him from transacting any busi- 
ness ; for only Olaf's name is mentioned in connec- 
tion with the treaty. During the following year, 
too, all public business devolv^ed upon Olaf ; for 
Magnus lay ill in Nidaros and finally died in the 
spring, 1069. H^e left one son, Haakon, who was 
but an infant and was fostered by Thore of Steig. 
No one put forth any claim to the kingdom in his 
name, and Olaf thus became king of the whole 
country. 

With the exception of the little ripple of martial 
excitement during the first years after his accession, 
Olaf Haroldsson's reign of twenty-seven years pre- 
sents not a single warlike event. His saga is a saga 
of peace — a long and honorable record of achieve- 
ments in the service of civilization. The key-note of 



OLAF THE QUIET. 2/5 

his character was prudent moderation. He was re- 
Hgious, but not fanatical ; devout, but not bigoted. 
Easy-going by temperament, yet neghgent of no 
duty, cheerful but not jolly, calm but not indolent, 
he is Indeed a unique but none the less attractive 
figure among the martial descendants of Harold the 
Fairhaired. He is the more remarkable because his 
leading traits of character contrast so strikingly with 
those of the prevailing type of man in his age. Se- 
renity of soul shines out of those of his utterances 
which the sagas have thought it worth while to pre- 
serve. There seems to be a conscious conviction, far 
in advance of his century, in a saying like this : 

'' Why should I not be happy, since I am sitting 
here with you at a feast, which is consecrated to my 
kinsman St. Olaf, and I see both joy and liberty 
among my subjects? In the days of my father this 
people lived under much compulsion and fear. Then 
most of them hid away their gold and treasures, but 
now I see shine upon every one the ornaments which 
he possesses. Your freedom and joy are my feast 
and my delight." 

The surname Kyrre, i. e., the tranquil, the quiet 
one, which the people gave him, whether originally 
meant as a compliment or not, became, in the course 
of time, an honorable distinction ; for during the 
century of strife and bloodshed Avhich followed, all 
looked upon his bloodless reign as upon a golden age 
of peace." As a later author f says: ''He was in 

* See Munch, ii., p. 430. 

f Thjodrek Munk, Cap. 29. Quoted from Munch Det Norske 
Folk's Historic. 



276 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

favor both with God and men ; he laid great stress 
upon peace and tranquillity; let every man keep 
what was his own, and suppressed nothing but what 
was evil. * -^ -^ There were then excellent crops 
and manifold splendor, so that Norway had never 
since Harold the Fairhaired been in such a pros- 
perous condition, as in his days. All the people 
loved him warmly ; for he conceded many a thing for 
their convenience which Harold had insisted upon 
with harshness and enforced with severity. He was 
liberal with gold and silver and good ornaments ; 
but only tenacious of land ; the reason of this was 
his intelligence ; for he saw that it was for the wel- 
fare of the kingdom." 

The story of Olaf the Quiet occupies but a few 
pages in the sagas, while that of his father and his 
son, both great warriors, fills much space. The 
work of destroying lives, in which the latter were ac- 
complished, appealed more to the warlike historian 
of the kings of Norway than the quiet activity for 
the preservation of life and the amelioration of its 
ills, to which Olaf devoted his energies. The little 
that Snorre says about him is, indeed, all in his praise, 
and very likely there was no one in those days who 
thought of singing songs or otherwise preserving 
other deeds than those of the sword. The scald who 
has sung Olaf's praise has, therefore, dwelt chiefly 
upon his participation in his father's foolhardy ex- 
pedition to England, and his battle with Sweyn 
Estridsson. 

It was natural that a man of Olaf's character 
should have small sympathy with the viking spirit 



OLAF THE QUIET. 277 

which was yet to a certain extent prevalent ; and 
thoup"h we do not know what he did to discour- 
age viking cruises, we hear that this form of 
piracy became very mucli rarer during his reign. 
One circumstance which must have been discourag- 
ing to the vikings was the greatly increased risk 
which they ran, on account of the consolidation and 
increased power of the states which they were wont 
to attack. England under William the Conqueror 
was no longer a congenial stopping-place for Norse 
pirates, and France, Spain, and Germany had like- 
wise taken measures for the protection of their 
coasts, which greatly interfered with the summer 
amusements of the Norse chieftains. A trip to Ire- 
land, to be sure, still offered some inducements in 
the way of slaves and plunder; but along the Swed- 
ish and the Russian coasts of the Baltic, the native 
tribes had proved apt pupils of the vikings, and had 
commenced plundering on their own account, thus 
diminishing the chances of profit for the Norsemen. 
That the influence of Christianity may also have 
been active in weaning men from their predatory 
habits we would fain believe, if the long carnival of 
bloodshed which followed did not seem to prove the 
contrary. The material considerations just cited, 
were evidently the more powerful ; though in the 
case of the king, who himself set the example of 
devotion to peaceful industries, there is no doubt 
that his religion influenced his life by strengthening 
the unwarlike side of his character. He manifested 
his sincerity as a Christian, not only by his fondness 
for the priests, whose vestments he often assisted in 



278 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

putting on, but more particularly by his efforts to 
change and suppress every thing which he believed to 
be antagonistic to. the spirit of the religion of Christ. 
Thus he was the first king of Norway who endeav- 
ored to put an end to serfdom. He gave the law, 
that every shire in the kingdom should annually 
manumit one thrall. His first object in giving this 
order, however, was to get citizens for his towns, and 
thereby encourage commerce and peaceful occupa- 
tions. Many of the thralls were artisans, and a 
large number of those who had been enthralled as 
prisoners of war were men of intelligence and enter- 
prise. 

Commerce had, even previous to the reign of Olaf 
the Quiet, enjoyed periods of prosperity. The 
vikings were often merchants as well as pirates, and 
bought for money or goods what they could not take 
with the sword. Merchants, on the other hand, who 
were not vikings, had always to have the sword at 
hand to defend their cargoes. A very sharp distinc- 
tion between the warrior caste and that of the 
merchants, did not therefore exist, and we find that 
great chieftains, nay even kings themselves, engaged 
in commerce, and were not ashamed of the profit 
they reaped by mercantile enterprise. Thus we 
hear that Olaf the Saint went into partnership, for 
one voyage, with the merchant Gudleik Gerdske, 
and Harold Hard-ruler made the trade with the 
Finns a royal monopoly which he farmed out to his 
underlings. A considerable exchange of commodi- 
ties by barter took place between Norway and Den- 
mark, Sweden and England, and as piracy declined, 



OLAF THE QUIET. 



279 



and the precious metals came into general use, a 
more regular commercial intercourse. These first 







INTERIOR OF ORKHAUGEN, OLD NORSE DWELLING ON THE ORKNEYS. 

effects of a more orderly social organization were 
beginning to be visible during the reign of Olaf the 
Quiet, and it is owing to this fact, that we hear so 



28o THE STOR Y OF NOR WA V. 

much about the promotion of commerce and the 
prosperity of the towns. The city of Bjorgvin (now 
Bergen) was founded by him (1070-1075) and very 
soon became a commercial centre of great import- 
ance. 

As long as their occupation was war and in- 
dustrial pursuits w^ere left to thralls, the Norsemen 
could not be expected to have much sense for 
domestic comfort. And the fact is that, before the 
days of Olaf the Quiet, even the wealthiest of them 
lived in a primative way, on coarse food and with rude 
surroundings. Their houses contained but one room, 
with closed alcoves along the walls for beds. As 
floor, served the bare earth, stamped hard and cov- 
ered with straw, and along the middle of it burned 
fires which sent gusts of smoke and sparks through 
the room. In the roof was a large hole for the escape 
of the smoke, and also for the admission of light. 
There were no ceilings; but the smoke-encrusted 
rafters from which often depended fishing-tackle, 
skins, and articles of clothing, stretched from wall to 
wall. Near the eaves there were square holes in the 
roof, closed with shutters. On both sides of the fire 
were tables and benches w^hich extended lengthwise 
through the hall. In the middle of each of the two 
benches which ran along the walls was a more elabo- 
rately carved seat with tall posts, called the high-seat. 
The high-seat on the north wall, facing south, be- 
longed to the master of the house ; that on the south 
wall was assigned to distinguished guests. The walls 
were, in the houses of chieftains, decorated with finely 
wrought weapons and hangings of colored cloth. 



OLAF THE QUIET. 2%\ 

Besides the principal dwelling {skdli) there were a 
number of smaller houses, such as the bath-house, 
kitchen, woman's bower, servant's hall, and some- 
times a guest-house. Among the out-houses the 
store-house, the barn, and the cow-stables were the 
most important. It will be seen from this that the 
farm of a well-to-do peasant must have had the 
appearance of a small village. 

In these arrangements Olaf made certain changes, 
all tending toward increased comfort. In the first 
place, he removed the fire-place from the middle of 
the floor into a corner, and had a chimney built for 
the escape of the smoke. It thus became possible 
to have floors of stone or wood, and this innovation 
immediately followed. Windows were cut in the 
walls and furnished with panes of glass or translu- 
cent membranes. Ceilings were made to enable one 
to keep the room at a more even temperature ; and 
gradually several rooms were gathered under one 
roof. The master's high-seat was removed to a 
cross-bench on the western (?) wall ; and in the king's 
hall, it was placed upon a raised dais, reserved for the 
king, the queen, and persons of distinction. While 
in former times, the feasters had contented them- 
selves with the light from the fire, Olaf introduced 
candles and tapers, and stationed as many taper- 
bearers in front of the royal table as there were 
persons of princely blood present. Courtiers were 
appointed to wait upon the guests ; and to mem- 
bers of the hird, or court, who filled this office was 
accorded a higher rank than the rest. 

These innovations were undoubtedly a departure 



282 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

from the old democratic simplicity. A more lavish 
expenditure was necessitated in connection with 
the court, and we find that Olaf increased the num- 
ber of courtiers (Jiirdmennir) from 60, which had 
hitherto been the legal number, to 120. A more 
elaborate ceremonial was a direct consequence of 
the greater luxury, and artificial distinctions in rank 
w^ere more emphasized than formerly. The king's 
even good-nature and gentleness disguised to a great 
extent the true meaning of all this, and prevented 
people from seeing any harm in it. In fact, the 
Norsemen were in those days fond of splendor, and 
with all their fierce sense of independence they were 
greatly attracted by glitter and show. The mag- 
nificence of Olaf's household tended to increase 
his popularity, for he did not impose greater bur- 
dens upon the people in order to defray his increased 
expenses. 

We have heard that Olaf the Quiet was a zealous 
Christian, and took a warm interest in the moral 
welfare of his people. With a view to softening 
their manners and preventing the bloody frays 
which were then apt to disturb social intercourse, 
he instituted clubs or associations, which were made 
subject to rigid regulations. These clubs or guilds, 
as they were called, met at first in the houses of their 
members, but gradually, as they increased in pros- 
perity, built separate club-houses, or even churches, 
in honor of their patron saints. St. Olaf was 
their favorite patron, but guilds were also formed 
under the protection of other saints. The clergy 
had supervision over the members ; and a peaceful 



OLAF THE QUIET. 283 

and conciliatory behavior was strenuously insisted 
upon. Weapons were not permitted in the guild- 
halls ; and all disputes had to be settled, when both 
parties had had time to cool off. To prevent brawls, 
by placing a restraint upon the behavior of the tur- 
bulent, women of good repute were made eligible, 
and brief religious ceremonies opened the meetings. 
The only objects of the gatherings were at first 
social ; but as the guilds grew more powerful, it was 
impossible to prevent them from assuming a semi-po- 
litical character. The laws pledged the members to 
mutual protection, and often to avenge each other's 
death. They might have become dangerous to the 
state, if the king and his principal advisers had not, 
themselves, been members and thus able to control 
their action. 

The artisans' guilds, which in later medieval times 
begin to gain political importance, were developed 
from these social guilds, which did not, however, 
from the beginning, confine themselves to people of 
one trade or profession. 

We hear very little about the tribal chieftains 
during Olaf's reign, probably because many of the 
most eminent of them had fallen at Stamford Bridge, 
and the king's popularity made it seem inadvisable 
to those who remained to oppose him. One of the 
few men whose doin'gs are recorded is Skule, the son 
of Earl Tostig, v/hom Olaf had brought with him 
from England after his father's death. Skule was in 
1069 sent on a mission to William the Conqueror, 
for the purpose of bringing Harold Hard-Ruler's body 
back to Norway, and accomplished this to the king's 



284 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



satisfaction. He was the ancestor of King Inge 
Baardsson, and the arch intriguer, Skule, who vainly 
aspired for the throne. 

Olaf the Quiet died on his estate, Haukby in 
Ranrike, September 22, 1093. His body was brought 
to Nidaros and interred in the Christ-Church which 
he had himself built. 





CHAPTER XVIII. 

MAGNUS BAREFOOT (1093-1 103) AND HAAKON MAG- 
NUSSON (1093-IO95). 

When the tidings of King Olaf's death had gone 
abroad, the inhabitants of Viken acknowledged his 
son, Magnus, as king, while the Tronders made haste 
to proclaim his nephew, Haakon Magnusson. The 
country was, accordingly, once more divided ; two 
thirds, including Trondelag, the Oplands, and all the 
northern shires, belonging to Haakon, and about 
one third to Magnus. The latter was scarcely pre- 
pared to find a rival to the throne in his cousin, who 
during his father's long reign had given no evidence 
that he cherished such an ambition. Only ignorance, 
on his part, of Haakon's intentions can explain his 
departure on an adventurous expedition to Scotland. 
The restless, warlike spirit of his grandfather dwelt 
in him, and he had chafed under the restraint which 
his father's peaceful policy imposed upon him. Now 
that he was free, he could afford to lose no more 
time in dallying. He therefore started, as soon as he 
had his hands free, on a wild-goose chase for glory : 
helped the Scottish king, Donald Bane, in his war- 
fare against Eadgar the Etheling and his brother, 
Malcolm's children ; asserted (apparently with sue 

285 



286 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

cess) his claim to the Scottish isles, which, during 
Harold Hard-Ruler's reign, had made themselves in- 
dependent ; aided the Irish King Muirkertach against 
the earl, Gudrod Meranagh ; and finally returned 
home in the summer of 1094 to find two thirds of his 
kingdom in the hands of a rival. He sailed directly 
to Nidaros with seven ships and took up his abode 
in the new royal mansion, resolved to make the 
Tronders feel the weight of his wrath. Haakon and 
his foster-father, Thore of Steig, also hastened to the 
city and put up at the old royal mansion. The rela- 
tion between the two parties was strained, and every 
day people expected an outbreak of hostilities. 
Finally Haakon opened negotiations with his cousin, 
offering to divide the kingdom with him in equal 
parts ; but Magnus repelled his overtures, refusing 
to recognize his title to any share in the govern- 
ment. Suddenly, in the middle of the night (Feb- 
ruary, 1095), Magnus had great fires made around the 
city, and Haakon's men, expecting an attack, seized 
their arms and rushed into the streets. No attack 
was, however, made, and both parties left the city 
without any hostile collision. Haakon, in crossing 
the Dovre Mountain on snow-shoes, was taken ill and 
died. 

One would have supposed that the Tronders had 
now no longer any pretext for persevering in their 
opposition to Magnus. But apparently they both 
hated him, and feared that he would mete out severe 
punishments to them for the support they had given 
his cousin. Therefore they gave heed to the coun- 
sel of Thore of Steig, who demanded their allegiance 



MAGNUS BAREFOOT. 28/ 

to a pretender named Sweyn, a Dane by birth, and 
not related to the royal house of Norway. The 
rebels found many adherents in the Oplands, among 
whom the liegeman Egil Aaslaksson. Under the 
leadership of Thore and Sweyn they started out, 
ravaging and plundering in Nordmore and Tronde- 
lag. They gave the peasants the choice either to 
join them or have their houses burned over their 
heads ; and there were many who preferred the for- 
mer alternative to the latter. Magnus' liegeman and 
devoted friend, Sigurd Wool-String (UUstreng), 
sent out war summons, but his force, which was 
quite inadequate, was utterly defeated by the rebels. 
He fled to Magnus, who instantly started in pursuit, 
captured Thore of Steig and Egil, and hanged them. 
Many others who had participated in the rebellion 
were killed or deprived of their property ; and as a 
punishment to the Tronders, the laws of Sweyn 
Alfifasson were re-enacted. 

Magnus was now undisputed master of all Nor- 
way and devoted himself with much energy to the 
maintenance of order by meting out relentless justice 
to evil-doers. To sit at home in inglorious ease, 
punishing rebels and marauders, was not, however 
in accordance with his taste. He hated peace as 
much as his father had loved it. Without any special 
provocation he, therefore, determined to pay a second 
visit to Scotland and Ireland for the purpose of 
securely founding his dominion in those lands. It 
appears that he was also cherishing a plan for invad- 
ing England and avenging the death of his grand- 
father at Stamford Bridge. Haakon Paulsson, a son 



288 THE Sl^ORY OF NORWAY. 

of Earl Paul of the Orkneys, who came to Norway, 
stimulated his ambition, hoping himself in some 
way to profit by it. With a fleet of i6o ships and 
upward of 14,000 men the warlike king sailed in the 
spring of 1098 for the Orkneys, and thence to the 
Hebrides, where he harried with remorseless cruelty. 
He conquered also the English islands of Man and 
Anglesey, and made great efforts to colonize the 
latter island. In the summer of 1099 he returned to 
Norway, but managed within a year to get himself 
into a promising quarrel with King Inge of Sweden, 
one of whose provinces (Dalsland) he claimed on a 
flimsy pretext. He won a great victory over the 
Swedes at Fuxerne, and left a garrison of 360 men 
in a fortress which he built on an island in Lake 
Wener. But King Inge forced this garrison to 
surrender, on humiliating terms, during the winter; 
and Magnus, to avenge this disgrace, invaded Sweden 
a second time, and was defeated not far from Troll- 
hattan. He came then near losing his life, but was 
saved by Agmund Skoftesson, who changed cloaks 
with him, and, starting conspicuously away from the 
other fugitives, drew the pursuers after him. This 
kind of warfare was, of course, sheer waste of life 
and treasure, and by the mediation of the Danish 
king, Erik Eiegod, peace was concluded at Konghelle, 
(i 100). Magnus was to marry King Inge's daughter 
Margaret, who was to receive the disputed province 
as her dowry. The marriage, however, was without 
issue, and Dalsland became, at the death of Magnus, 
again a part of Sweden. Queen Margaret, because 
she was the bringer of peace, was called by the 
Norsemen, Fridkulla, i. c, the peace-maker. 



MAGNUS BAREFOOT. 289 

It was not to be expected that Magnus should rest 
contented with the fanie he had now gained, and 
turn his mind to the pursuits of peace. His senti- 
ments in that regard are well expressed in his saying: 
"A king should rather strive for glory than for a 
long life." In his anxiety to find a pretext for war 
he finally, as it is told, sent a pair of his shoes to 
King Muirkertach, in Ireland, with the request that 
he should carry them on his shoulders, on Christmas 
Day, in the presence of the Norse ambassadors, as a 
sign that he recognized Magnus at his overlord. The 
Irish were greatly incensed at this demand ; but 
Muirkertach, who knew something of Magnus' style 
of warfare, declared that he would not only carry 
the shoes, but that he would eat them too, rather 
than receive another visit from the king of Norway. 
This humility did not, however, save him from the 
dreaded visitation. Magnus had determined upon 
the conquest of Ireland, and forthwith sailed (1102) 
westward with a large fleet. After having touched 
at the Orkneys, he landed on Man, where he had his 
son, Sigurd, proclaimed king and married to Muirker- 
tach's nine-year old daughter, Biadmuin. He fought 
for a while with varying success in Ulster, nominally 
in alliance with Muirkertach, though there is every 
reason to believe that the latter was only watching 
for a chance to destroy him. Such a chance finally 
presented itself, while Magnus was waiting on the 
coast of Ulster for a herd of cattle that had been 
promised him. He had gone ashore with a small 
part of his force in a swampy region, and was sud- 
denly surrounded by the Irish, who had hid in the 



290 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

underbrush, and who, on account of their knowledge 
of the ground, had a great advantage. Here Magnus 
fell after a heroic combat, and the remnant of his 
army made haste to return to Norway. 

Magnus was but thirty years old at the time of his 
death. He was a tall and well-grown man, of fine 
features and a commanding appearance. His sur- 
name Barefoot or Bareleg was given to him because, 
after his return from his first Scotch campaign, he 
adopted the Highland costume, wearing kilts instead 
of trousers. 




CHAPTER XIX 

EYSTEIN (l IO3-I 122), SIGURD THE CRUSADER (l 103- 
II 30), AND OLAF MAGNUSSON (1103-III5). 

In accordance with established custom, the three 
sons of Magnus Barefoot were proclaimed kings, 
and the land was divided between them. There is, 
however, a probability that this division pertained 
chiefly to the royal estates, from which the kings 
derived their principal revenue, but did not involve 
a division of the country itself into separate king- 
doms. Eystein was at the time of his proclamation 
fourteen years old, Sigurd thirteen, and Olaf three or 
four. They were all illegitimate, but had been 
acknowledged by their father. There was, at that 
time, a great agitation throughout Europe on account 
of the crusades. Kings, knights, and even children, 
in their anxiety to save their souls, threw reason to 
the winds, and, relying upon supernatural aid, started 
with insufKicient preparations on adventurous under- 
takings. This grand religious enthusiasm did not 
reach the North until its force was partly spent. 
Some of the men who had visited Jerusalem re- 
turned home, but apparently were but little affected 
by religious phases of the war against the unbelievers. 
They talked rather of the chances for worldly fame 

291 



292 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

and gain which the crusade presented, and aroused a 
desire in many of their countrymen to win both 
heavenly and earthly glory by an expedition to 
the Holy Land. It was the general desire that 
one of the princes should command the expedi- 
tion, and Sigurd, who had inherited his father's 
spirit, willingly consented. In order to fit himself 
out properly he needed money, and this he could 
not get without the good-will of the people. He 
had the wisdom to see, that the success of his enter- 
prise could be better advanced by concession than 
by extortion, and he therefore abolished, once for 
all, the oppressive laws of Sweyn Alfifasson, and 
gained thereby a great popularity. Eystein assisted 
his brother energetically in his equipments, and, in 
the autumn of 1107, Sigurd sailed away with a fleet 
of sixty large ships and ten thousand men. He 
paid first a friendly visit to England, where he was 
received with great distinction by King Henry I. 
Thence he steered his course to Spain, where he had 
many adventures, fought against the Moors, and 
destroyed a pirate's nest on the island Formentera. 
In Italy he was magnificently received by Robert 
Guiscard's son, Duke Roger, who was proud of his 
Norse descent, and greeted the king of Norway as he 
would a kinsman. He even (if the saga account is 
to be trusted) acknowledged Sigurd as his overlord, 
and consented to receive the royal title from his 
hands. Duke Roger died, however, soon after and 
had no opportunity to assert his new dignity. It 
was not until August, 1 1 10, that Sigurd reached the 
Holy Land. He landed at Joppa, where he was met 



KY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 293 

by King Baldwin, who accompanied him to Jerusalem, 
and showed him the holy sepulchre and all the places 
that are associated with the Saviour's life and death. 
The Patriarch of Jerusalem presented Sigurd with a 
splint of the true cross to be preserved at St. Olaf's 
shrine, on condition that the king, on his return, should 
impose tithes for the support of the church. Before 
starting on his homeward way, Sigurd assisted Bald- 
win and Count Bertrand of Tripolis, at the sieges of 
Sidon and Akron, and received his share of the booty. 
He then betook himself to Constantinople, where 
games were celebrated in his honor by the Emperor 
Alexius, and a lavish magnificence was displayed in 
his entertainment, the like of which the Norsemen 
had never beheld. Sigurd forbade them, however, 
to show surprise at any thing they saw, lest the 
Greeks should conclude that they were barbarians, 
unaccustomed to luxury. In July, iiii, the king 
returned to Norway after an absence of three years 
and a half. He received henceforth the surname 
the Crusader (Jorsalfar). 

The thirst for glory which animated Sigurd was in 
striking contrast to the peaceful spirit which dwelt 
in his brother, Eystein. Upon the former had de- 
scended the restless ambition of Magnus Barefoot, 
while the latter had inherited his grandfather Olaf 
the Quiet's taste for building and calm delight in 
well-doing. While Sigurd scoured sea and land in 
search of fame, Eystein sat quietly at home, building 
churches, encouraging trade and industry, and im- 
proving the laws. By sheer dint of persuasion, gifts, 
and appeals to their self-interest, he gained the alle- 



294 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

giance of the inhabitants of the Swedish province, 
Jemteland, which in the reign of Haakon the Good 
had belonged to Norway. Knowing the importance 
of the fisheries, as a source of national wealth, he had 
booths erected in Vaagen for the accommodation of 
the fishermen, and a church and parsonage for their 
spiritual welfare. At Agdeness, where many ships 
were wrecked, he made an artificial harbor by the 
construction of a mole. As a guide to sailors along 
the dangerous coast, he put up sea-marks and primi- 
tive light-houses, in the shape of fires which were 
lighted, after dark, on certain rocks and promontories. 
For the shelter of pilgrims to St. Olaf's shrine and 
other travellers, he built taverns on the Dovre Moun- 
tain, the passage of which had hitherto been perilous, 
on account of the snow and the absence of roads. 
Among the many churches which were erected by 
him were the Church of the Apostles, and St. 
Michael's in Bergen, St. Nicholas in Nidaros, and 
the rich Benedictine Monastery, Munkeliv. 

With all their devotion to war and tendency to 
violence, the Norsemen could not help loving this 
wise and peaceful king, whose constant care was 
their welfare. That their old bellicose ideals were 
being superseded by gentler and nobler ones is 
indicated by their devotion for their two unwarlike 
kings, Olaf the Quiet and Eystein Magnusson. Of 
these two Eystein was, in point of intellect and 
strength of character, the more eminent. He seems 
to have pursued his policy of construction, instead of 
destruction, not merely from temperamental bias, but 
from clear-sighted conviction. His fondness for the 



EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 295 

study of law and the importance he attached to legal 
knowledge are, in this respect, significant. The sound 
sense and moderation which distinguished his grand- 
father he also possessed in a marked degree, besides 
the same gentleness and charm of manner. In ap- 
pearance he was like most of his race, large and 
handsome ; he had blue eyes, blonde, curly hair, and 
a dignified presence. 

It was scarcely to be expected that two brothers, 
so antagonistic in disposition as Sigurd and Eystein, 
could avoid clashing. Sigurd felt himself as a man 
of the world, who had cut a brilliant figure in foreign 
lands, and he looked upon Eystein as a stay-at-home, 
who could boast of no such experience. He scarcely 
appreciated the fact that his brother, though he might 
have put obstacles in his path, received him heartily, 
on his return, and willingly shared his authority with 
him. It was incomprehensible to him that a quiet 
man like Eystein, who had no great deeds to boast 
of, should enjoy as much consideration and respect 
as himself. Above all, it was Eystein's insistance 
upon legal methods, in all relations between subject 
and king, which seemed to Sigurd an interference 
with his authority, and, therefore, irritated him. A 
serious disagreement soon arose from this source. 
Once, when Sigurd was in Trondelag, he insulted 
the beautiful Sigrid, the wife of the liegeman, Ivar of 
Fljod, after having sent the latter on a dangerous 
expedition to Ireland. This Sigrid's brother, Sigurd 
Ranesson, resented, and was, by way of revenge, ac- 
cused by the king of embezzlement in the Finn-trade, 
which had been farmed out to him by Magnus Bare- 



296 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

foot. In his need he appealed to King Eystein, 
who, when he heard the story, promised him his 
assistance. Three times Sigurd Ranesson was now 
summoned to court by King Sigurd, but every time 
Eystein's superior knowledge of the law saved him. 
The legal procedure, which is recorded in detail, is 
full of interest, and shows a remarkable development 
of the social organization, considering the time. In 
the end, however, Eystein had not only to assume 
the conduct of the case, but became a party to the 
suit, in his client's place. King Sigurd was greatly 
incensed, and Sigurd Ranesson, in order to avoid 
bloodshed, went late in the evening on board of his 
enemy's ship, fell on his knees before him, and said: 
^' I will not, my lord king, that you and your brother 
shall be at strife on my account. * * * Rather I 
surrender myself and my head to your power and 
mercy, *^ ^ ^ for I would rather die than be the 
cause of hostility between you and King Eystein." 

The king, after having pondered long, answered : 
" In sooth thou art a noble man, Sigurd, and thou 
hast chosen the way which will be best for us all. 
Know that * * * j h^^j firmly resolved to- 
morrow to go up to the Ilevolds with all my men, 
and fight with King Eystein." 

He now gave judgment that his antagonist should 
pay fifteen marks in gold, which should be divided 
between the three kings, but as Eystein and Olaf 
both refused to accept their share of the money, 
Sigurd, not wishing to be outdone in generosity, 
likewise renounced his claim. 

Though there was now no danger of war, the 



EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 29/ 

relation between the brothers was yet far from 
cordial. A fresh source of disagreement soon arose, 
for which Sigurd, as usual, was to blame. The ru- 
mor came to him that Eystein was very fond of a 
maiden, named Borghild, the daughter of the power- 
ful peasant, Olaf of Dal ; that he loved to sit at her 
side and talk with her, and that his predilection for 
her society had been the cause of scandalous reports. 
Borghild, in order to prove her innocence, walked 
on glowing plough-shares, and endured the test. 
Sigurd, seeing that here was an opportunity to pay 
his brother back for his protection of Sigurd Ranes- 
son, abducted Borghild and made her his mistress. 
She became the mother of Magnus, who, for a short 
time, was king after his father's death. Eystein 
took this affair much to heart, but made no effort to 
avenge the wrong he had suffered. That he felt 
sore about it was, however, natural enough, and this 
feeling burst forth on one occasion most unexpect- 
edly ; though, to be sure, no allusion was made to the 
real grievance. 

It happened once, during the winter, that the two 
king's were feasting together at one of Eystein's 
estates. King Sigurd's men, reflecting the spirit of 
their master, behaved arrogantly toward King Ey- 
stein's people, and were fond of exalting the one 
brother at thS other's expense. Many complaints 
were brought to Eystein, but he refused to take 
note of them. The strained relation between the 
two parties, however, spoiled the cheer of the table, 
and the men sat sullen over their cups and were ill 
at ease. Then Eystein, with perhaps a deeper pur- 



298 . THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

pose than the apparent one, proposed a so-caUed 
"man-measuring," or comparison of merits, which 
was a favorite social pastime in those days. It is to 
be remarked, that etiquette did not then forbid a 
man to boast of his own deeds and accompHshments. 
On the contrary, the custom survived from the age 
of paganism to emphasize frankly one's merits, and 
when occasion demanded, to hurl tremendous vol- 
leys of vituperation against an adversary. 

" Dost thou remember," Sigurd began, in response 
to his brother's challenge, " how I threw thee in 
wrestling, ^ ->«• ^ although thou wast a year 
older than I ? " 

" I remember also," Eystein replied, " that thou 
wast my inferior in agility," 

Step by step they now advanced through child- 
hood and youth, comparing each other's proficiency 
in swimming, skating, shooting, skee-running, and in 
personal appearance. Finally, Sigurd touched the 
main point at issue, when he said : 

" It has been generally acknowledged that the 
campaign, which I made in foreign lands, was in 
sooth worthy of a chieftain, while thou sattest at 
home in thy country like thy father's daughter." 

4<^ * 'X- J think I also remember," Eystein re- 
joined, "that it was I who fitted thee out from 
home for that campaign, as I would have done a 
daughter." 

" But I went to the Holy Land and to Africa, but 
there I saw thee not. I won eight battles. Thou 
wast not in one of them. I went to the sepulchre of 
Christ ; there I saw thee not. I went to the River 



EYSTEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 299 

Jordan, by the same road that our Lord had gone, 
and I swam across ; but I saw thee not there. I 
tied a knot for thee in the underbrush on the river- 
bank, and it is yet waiting for thee to untie it. I 




HITTERDAL CHURCH. ILLUSTRATING OLD NORSE ECCLESIASTICAL 
ARCHITECTURE. 

conquered the city of Sidon with the king of 
Jerusalem, without thy aid or counsel." 

Eystein listened imperturbably to this long list of 
his brother's deeds, and finally answered : " I have 
indeed heard, that thou didst fight some battles 



300 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

abroad, and what I have to match against such 
deeds is but trifles. North in Vaagen I put up 
booths for the fishermen, so that poor people may 
find shelter and earn their living. I had a church 
erected, appointed a priest, and gave land for the 
support of the church. * * * Those who enjoy 
the benefit of this will remember that Eystein was 
king in Norway. * * * Across the Dovre 
Mountain there was much travel. There people 
lay out on the rocks and suffered hardships. I built 
an inn and endowed it. The travellers, who now 
reap the benefit of this, will remember King Eystein. 
At Agdeness there was a dangerous coast and no 
harbor, so that ships were often wrecked. There I 
constructed a harbor, where there is excellent anchor- 
age for all ships. -^^ -^^ * I likewise built a church 
there and put up sea-marks on the high mountains. 
* * * All these things are now of service to 
fishermen and merchants who carry the products of 
the land from place to place, and they, while bene- 
fiting by them, will remember me. -^ ^ * The 
inhabitants of Jemteland I made subject to this 
realm, not by violence, but by gentle words and 
rational negotiations. -^ •5«- * AH these things 
are perhaps of small moment, but I do not believe 
that they are of less benefit to my country and 
people, and will profit my soul less, than it will profit 
thine to have sent Moors to the devil, and expedited 
them head over heels to hell. ^ * -^ Now, as 
regards the knot thou didst tie for me, then, me- 
thinks, I might have tied such a knot for thee that 
thou wouldst never have been king in Norway, when 



EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 30I 

thou returnedst from thy campaign, and didst sail 
hither with but a single ship. Let, now, intelligent 
men judge, what advantage thou hast over me, and 
know ye, ye purse-proud braggarts, that there are 
yet men in Norway, who dare hold themselves your 
equals." 

This was the end of the '' man-measuring " ; and 
both kings were very wroth. 

Several other incidents are recorded, which show 
that Sigurd's jealousy of his brother would, at length, 
have brought about a breach of the peace, if death 
had not suddenly made an end of their intercouse. 
Eystein died at the age of thirty-three, August 29, 
1 122. The youngest brother, Olaf, had died (11 15) 
before he reached manhood, and Sigurd was accord- 
ingly the sole ruler in the land. He was now free 
from the restraint, which Eystein's pacific disposition 
had imposed upon him, and he presently availed 
himself of his liberty to make a crusade into the 
Swedish province Smaaland, where paganism yet 
lingered (11 23). He attacked the town of Kalmar, 
from which incident the war has been called the 
Kalmar War. Whether he succeeded in converting 
the pagans is not known ; nor are any other results 
of the crusade recorded. After his return from this 
campaign, a great calamity befell him. Once, it is 
told, when he was in his bath, he called out, that 
there was a fish in the bath-tub, and ran about trying 
to catch it. It was the first symptom of the insanity 
which darkened the remaining years of his life. He 
was often sane for long periods ; but, at times, he 
would sit and brood with wildly rolling eyes, or 



302 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

break out into paroxysms of wrath. Once, on the 
day of Pentecost, when his madness came upon him, 
he took a precious book,''^ which he had brought with 
him from Constantinople, and, gazing gloomily at 
Queen Malmfrid, who was sitting at his side, said : 
" How many things can change in a man's lifetime ! 
When I returned to my country, I owned two things 
which seemed to me most precious, — this book and 
the queen. Now the one seems only more worthless 
than the other. The queen does not know how 
hideous she is ; for a goat's horn is sticking out of 
her head. ^ -J^ ^ And this book here is good for 
nothing." 

Then he rose, gave the queen a slap, and flung the 
book into the fire. But in the same instant, a young 
taper-bearer, named Ottar Birting, jumped forward, 
snatched the book from the flames, and stepped fear- 
lessly before the king. '' Different it is now, my 
lord," he said, " from the time, when thou didst 
sail with pomp and splendor to Norway, and all 
thy friends hastened with joy to meet thee. -^ * * 
Now the days of sorrow have come upon us ; for 
to this glorious feast many of thy friends have come, 
but they cannot be glad because of thy sad condition. 
Be now so kind, good my lord, to accept this advice. 
Rejoice by thy gentleness first the queen, whom thou 
hast so sorely offended, and then all thy chieftains, 
thy men-at-arms, thy friends, and thy servants." 

*' How darest thou, ugly, low-born tenant's son, 
give me counsel ? " cried the king, springing up and 
drawing his sword. 

* A codex written in letters of gold, containing probably a portion 
of the Bible. 



EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLAF MAGNUSSON. 303 

All the guests expected, in the next moment, to 
see Ottar's head roll on the floor. But Ottar stood, 
gazing calmly into the king's face, and did not stir 
from the spot. Then Sigurd suddenly stayed his 
hand and let the sword fall gently upon his shoulder. 
He rebuked his liegemen, for not having protested 
against his insane acts, and thanked the youth for 
his courage. 

" Go, therefore, Ottar," he finished ; " and take 
thy seat among the liegemen. Thou shalt no more 
wait upon any one." 

Ottar Birting became in later years a man of great 
fame and authority. 

It may have been due to the unsoundness of his 
mind that Sigurd, in the last years of his, life com- 
mitted an act, which, however generous it may 
seem, was scarcely politically defensible. In the 
year 11 29, a young Irishman named Harold Gil- 
christ arrived in Norway and declared that he was 
a son of Magnus Barefoot. It was known that King 
Magnus had had a mistress in Ireland, and during 
his last battle he is said to have recited averse about 
an Irish girl, whom he loved above all others. It is 
therefore probable that Harold Gilchrist was, or at 
least believed himself to be, heir to the throne of Nor- 
way. He went to King Sigurd,who listened to his story^ 
and allowed him to prove the truth of his statement 
by submitting to the ordeal by fire. He walked over 
the red-hot ploughshares and endured the test suc- 
cessfully. It was the priests who had charge of such 
ordeals, and it was believed that they had the result 
in their power. Harold Gilchrist, or Gille, as the 



304 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Norsemen called him, was now acknowledged by 
the king as his brother, on condition that he should 
make no claim to the government, as long as Sigurd 
or his son Magnus was alive. It was, however, no 
easy task for the king to secure for the long- 
necked, thin-legged, and lanky Irishman the respect 
which was due to a member of the royal family. In 
the first place Harold's appearance was against him, 
and in the second place, he stammered and could 
scarcely make himself understood in Norwegian. 
The king's son, Magnus, hated and ridiculed him, 
and among the liegemen there were many who be- 
lieved him to be an unscrupulous adventurer. A 
few years before his death, Sigurd put away Queen 
Malmfrid, disregarding the warning of Bishop 
Magne, and married a beautiful and high-born 
woman, named Cecilia. He did not long survive 
this marriage. Many of his friends urged him, for 
the good of his soul, to dissolve it. But the fascina- 
tion, which Cecilia exercised over him, was so great, 
that he could not bear the thought of losing her. 
At last, when he was taken ill, she herself sug- 
gested a separation. 

" I did not know that thou, too, didst despise me 
like the rest," he answered sadly. His face flushed 
purple, and he turned away from her. His illness 
now took a turn for the worse, and on March 26, 
1 1 30, he died, forty years old. Dissipations had 
undermined his health, and his insanity had long- 
unfitted him for the cares of government. For 
all that, there seems to be a halo about his 
name, partly on account of his early fame, and 



EY STEIN, SIGURD, AND OLA F MAGNUSSON. 305 

partly because of the good crops and commercial 
prosperity which prevailed during his reign. He 
seemed to the people a grand figure, and, in spite 
of his great faults, every inch a king. What may 
have contributed more than any thing else to en- 
dear his memory to later generations was the evil 
times that broke over the land at his death. He 
seemed himself to have a foreboding of this, when 
he said: 

"Ye are badly off, ye Norsemen, for you have a 
mad king ; and yet methinks that, in a short while, 
you will be willing to give the red gold to have me 
as your king, rather than Harold or Magnus; for the 
former is cruel ; the latter is devoid of sense." 




CHAPTER XX. 

MAGNUS THE BLIND (l 130-1 135) AND HAROLD GILLE 
(11 30-1 136). 

When the tidings of his father's death reached 
him, Magnus hastened to summon a thmg in Oslo 
and have himself proclaimed king of the whole 
country. Harold, who had been waiting for this 
opportunity to break his oath, did the same at 
Tunsberg; only he contented himself preliminarily 
with half the kingdom. Magnus naturally refused 
to recognize his claim, and the people were soon 
divided into two parties, one of which sided with 
Magnus, while the other supported Harold. 

In point of character they were both equally un- 
fitted for the leadership of a nation. Magnus was a 
coarse, avaricious, and arrogant roisterer, addicted to 
drink, and incapable of any noble impulse. Harold 
was a weak and vacillating man, jolly, liberal, and 
easy-going, in whom the Irish characteristics pre- 
dominated. He was pliable as wax in the hands of 
the liegemen, to whom he left all the cares of state, 
while he himself conceived of the royal dignity as a 
mere privilege to live high, wear good clothes, and 
enjoy certain honors in daily intercourse. The 
tribal magnates, who had long been excluded from 

306 



MAGNUS THE BLIJVD AND HAROLD GILLE. 307 

the power which they believed to be their due, were 
therefore attracted to him, while Magnus repelled 
them by his haughtiness and avarice. 

For three years the two rivals kept the peace ; but 
the fourth winter after their accession, Magnus began 
to collect troops, and attacked Harold at Fyrileiv 
(1134) in Viken, winning a great victory. He was 
so elated at his success that, contrary to the advice 
of the liegemen, he dismissed his army and betook 
himself to Bergen, where he lived riotously, paying 
no heed to Harold's movements. The latter, in the 
meanwhile, had found a refuge in Denmark, and had 
received the province of Halland in fief. He soon 
gathered a suflficient force to invade Norway, and as 
he sailed northward to Bergen, he gained many ad- 
herents in the coast-shires. Magnus, when he heard 
of his approach, lost his head completely, rejected 
the counsel of his friend, Sigurd Sigurdsson, and 
contented himself with scattering about the city a 
kind of sharp, iron '' foot-hooks," which in the end 
only injured his own men, and locking the harbor 
with iron chains, whereby he prevented his own es- 
cape, when shortly afterward the town fell into his 
enemy's hands. Most of his men then abandoned 
him, while he himself, with his faithful friend, Ivar 
Assersson, remained on his ship, until it was boarded 
by Harold's men. 

It is scarcely an excuse for Harold Gille to say, 
that his friends induced him to commit the atrocity, 
of which he was now guilty. He did not content 
himself with putting Magnus' eyes out, but he cut 
off one of his legs and subjected him to another still 



308 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

more revolting mutilation. Ivar Assersson, who strik- 
ingly resembled King Magnus, was asked whether he 
would now care to resemble him ; and the brave man 
answered unflinchingly that he would, whereupon he 
too was blinded. The miserable Magnus was now 
dressed in a monk's garb and shut up in the monas- 
tery of Nidarholm. Bishop Reinald, who was sus- 
pected of having the royal treasures in his keeping, 
was hanged because he would not reveal their hiding- 
place. 

These misdeeds did not long remain unavenged. 
In the summer of 1136 came a man, named Sigurd, 
to Norway, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus 
Barefoot. Sigurd was a man of great intelligence, 
courage, and ambition ; and in those respects, at 
least, a much worthier pretender than the weak, 
vicious Harold Gille. He had led a very adven- 
turous life, played an important role in the feuds 
between the Earls of the Orkneys, visited Rome 
and the Holy Land, and bathed in the Jordan. The 
ability of Harold Hard-Ruler and the restless and 
enterprising spirit of Magnus Barefoot seemed to be 
united in him. His mother, Thora Saxe's-Daughter, 
is said to have kept the secret of his paternity from 
him until he was grown, because Magnus Barefoot 
had had a child by her sister, and a sense of shame 
had therefore kept her silent. As a boy, Sigurd had 
an ungovernable disposition, and in order to tame 
his wildness, his foster-father had him educated and 
consecrated to the church. When he finally kicked 
through the traces, he was therefore called Sigurd 
Slembedegn, i. c, the Bad Priest. 



MAGNUS THE BLIND AND HAROLD GILLE. 309 

On his return to Norway in 11 36 Sigurd went to 
Harold Gille, after having procured a safe-conduct, 
and announced his origin. There was now a chance 
for Harold to return the generosity, which Sigurd the 
Crusader had shown to him when he came, as a poor 
and unknown youth from Ireland, and proclaimed 
himself heir to the throne of Norway. But, although 
Sigurd Slembedegn could bring apparently satisfac- 
tory proof of the truth of his assertion, Harold was 
perhaps, on this account, only the more afraid of him. 
His advisers among the liegemen who were now gov- 
erning without restraint, in the king's name, had cause 
to fear a man like Sigurd who would make short 
work of their pretensions. They therefore advised 
the king to rid himself of the new aspirant to the 
throne, by fair means or foul. On the pretence of 
punishing him for his alleged participation in a 
slaying, Harold made an attempt to capture him ; 
but Sigurd escaped by swimming, and returned the 
king's breach of faith by killing him in the house of 
his mistress, Thora Guttorm's-Daughter. He then 
called the citizens of Bergen together, and, standing 
upon his ship, avowed the murder and asked them to 
make him their king. Contrary to his expectation, 
however, a great indignation was aroused against 
him, and the liegemen artfully fanned the excite- 
ment, until it was no longer safe for him to remain 
in the city. '' If thou art the son of King Magnus," 
the citizens said, '* then it is thy brother whom thou 
hast assassinated." And they forthwith outlawed the 
regicide and all his adherents. Sigurd fled in haste 
northward on his ships and arrived^ in Nordhordland. 



3IO 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Harold Gille was thirty-two years old, when he was 
slain. He was one of the most unworthy kings that 
ever disgraced the throne of Norway. It was a short 
while before his death (1136) that the Wends, under 
their prince, Ratibor, sacked and burned the flourish- 
ing town of Konghelle, which Sigurd the Crusader 
had enlarged and beautified. 







CHAPTER XXI. 

THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE (1137-I161). 

Queen Ingerid, the widow of Harold Gille, 
availed herself of the general indignation against 
Sigurd Slembedegn, to have her own two-year-old 
son, Inge, proclaimed king. She also sent a swift 
ship to Nidaros, with the request to the Tronders 
that they give their allegiance to King Harold's son, 
Sigurd, who had reached the age of five. The pow- 
erful liegemen, to whom this arrangement was highly 
agreeable, made haste to secure the recognition of 
the two boys throughout the land. 

Sigurd Slembedegn's chances of becoming king 
were thus very slight. But, hoping to revive the 
indignation against Harold Gille and thereby miti- 
gate his own offence, he took the blind and maimed 
Magnus, Sigurd the Crusader's son, out of the mon- 
astery, and tried to rally his old friends and followers 
about him. In this he had some success, but less 
than he had expected. He therefore sailed to the 
Hebrides for the purpose of increasing his force, 
leaving Magnus in charge of Bjorn Egilsson and 
Gunnar of Gimse. Before Sigurd had returned, 
however, Magnus had been attacked at Minne, 
in the Oplands, by King Inge's guardian, Thjos- 

311 



312 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

tulf Aalesson, and defeated in a bloody battle 
(1137). Thjostulf, either to encourage his men, or 
because he was afraid to trust him to anybody else, 
carried the two-year-old king in his girdle during the 
battle, while he himself fought with a sword and 
spear, and the deadly missiles fell in showers about 
him. The poor boy, who was unequal to such hard- 
ships, soon began to show the effects of his prema- 
ture experience of war. A hump grew on his back 
and one of his legs withered away. He therefore re- 
ceived the surname '' Crook-Back." 

Magnus the Blind fled after the battle into Swe- 
den, where he persuaded the earl, Charles Sunesson, of 
Vestergotland, to come to his assistance ; but was 
again overwhelmingly beaten at Krokaskogen by 
Thostulf Aalesson (1137). The little king, Inge, 
was again carried under his guardian's cloak, and 
heard, though scarcely without fear, the clash of 
arms and the fierce tumult of battle. This time 
Magnus fled to Denmark and succeeded in inducing 
King Erik Emunc to sail to Norway with a fleet of 
240 ships. The Norsemen, however, defended their 
coast so well that the Danish king for a long while 
did not venture to land. At last he burned the city 
of Oslo, but was immediately afterward attacked by 
King Inge and his liegeman, Aamunde Gyrdsson, at 
Hornboresund, and all his great fleet routed. Sigurd 
Slembedegn, in the meanwhile, had returned from 
the Hebrides and was cruising about in the Baltic, 
fighting in viking fashion with Wendic pirates, and 
occasionally harrying on the coasts of Norway, and 
injuring the friends of the young kings. He was 



THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 313 

soon joined by Magnus, and the two were met by 
the fleet of the kings, Sigurd and Inge, at Holmen- 
graa (11 39). The battle was fought with great 
vehemence on both sides, until suddenly all the 
Danes fled, and left their allies in the lurch. Hop- 
ing to save the blind Magnus, Reidar Grjotgardsson 
lifted him from the bed upon which he was lying, 
and tried to carry him on board another ship. But 
a spear pierced both from behind and they fell down, 
dying. Magnus exclaimed as he felt the steel in his 
vitals : ''That comes seven years too late." 

Sigurd Slembedegn leaped overboard and would 
have escaped, if he had not been betrayed by one of 
his own men. He was put to death by the liegemen 
with the most horrible tortures. He was scourged 
until his skin hung in tatters about him ; then his 
bones were crushed with stones ; and at last he was 
hanged. His marvellous fortitude during his agony 
filled even his executioners with admiration. He 
talked in a perfectly natural voice, and not a muscle 
of his face betrayed what he suffered. Several times 
he sank into a swoon ; but when he revived, he was 
calm and unmoved. Never did a man meet a more 
horrible death with more heroic equanimity. Sigurd 
Slembedegn had the stuff in him for a great king, 
and if Sigurd the Crusader had sat upon the throne, 
when he advanced his claim, instead of the Irishman, 
Harold Gilchrist, the history of Norway would have 
taken a different turn, and his might have been one 
of the great names in its pages. It was true what 
many, both friends and foes, said after his death, 
that '' there was no man more capable in all things 



314 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

than Sigurd -^^ * * but he was born under an 
unlucky star." 

The country now had peace for some years; chief- 
ly because the kings were too small to have serious 
quarrels. In 1 142, however, came Eystein, a third 
son of Harold Gille, from Scotland, and claimed his 
share of the kingdom. He was considerably older 
than the others, and must have been often men- 
tioned by his father during his lifetime ; for no 
one thought of disputing his claim, nor was any 
proof required as to his origin. He was a dark- 
haired, corpulent, and somewhat indolent youth, 
avaricious in the extreme, and devoid of all per- 
sonal attractions. Some time elapsed before he 
exerted any influence upon the affairs of the coun- 
try, and we shall therefore leave him, until his quar- 
rels with his brothers demand our attention. 

The first cause of discord in the royal family was 
the marriage of the queen dowager, Ingerid, to 
the above - mentioned liegeman, Ottar Birting. 
King Inge thereby came under the guardian- 
ship of his step-father, whereby the jealousy of 
other liegemen was aroused. Especially was King 
Sigurd indignant, because Ottar had hitherto been 
one of his most powerful adherents ; while now he 
became attached to the fortunes of Inge. Amid 
this agitation, Ottar Birting was suddenly assassi- 
nated, and it became clear to every one that King 
Sigurd had caused his death. Many other circum- 
stances conspired to make Sigurd unpopular, and 
his personal qualities were, indeed, such as to repel 
all who came in contact with him. It was particu- 







6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



larly his immorality which ahenated his friends. 
When he was but fifteen years old, he had a son, 
named Haakon, whose mother was a pretty ser- 
vant-girl. Many pretenders appeared later, who 
claimed him as their father. In appearance he 
was more of a Norseman than his brothers — light- 
haired, blue-eyed, tall of stature, and of great vigor. 
His beauty was, however, marred by a pair of ugly 
thick lips, from which he derived the surname 
Mouth (Mund). 

He hated his brother Inge, whose popularity 
caused him uneasiness ; and, as Eystein shared this 
sentiment, he approached the latter and opened 
negotiations with him, with a view to thrusting 
Inge from the throne. They were soon agreed, 
and would perhaps have carried out their plan, if 
Inge's faithful friend, Gregorius Dagsson, who had 
taken Ottar Birting's place as his guardian and ad- 
viser, had not got wind of their purpose. When, 
therefore, King Sigurd arrived in Bergen, he found 
Inge prepared to receive him ; and he contented 
himself with killing one of his men-at-arms and 
threatening " to roll the golden helmet of Grego- 
rius in the dust," but denied that any agreement 
existed between him and Eystein to Inge's detri- 
ment. Neither Inge nor Gregorius put any trust, 
however, in his assurances ; and, after many bicker- 
ings and hostile acts on both sides, Gregorius re- 
ceived Inge's permission to attack his brother. Si- 
gurd was then surprised in his house and slain (115 5), 
after having vainly begged for mercy. It is told that 
the men, whose wives he had insulted, rushed at 



THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 317 

him, eager for vengeance, and ran him through with 
their swords. He was then but twenty-one years 
old. Eystein, who knew that his turn would come 
next, gathered in haste as many men as he could in- 
duce to join him, in order to take vengeance on Gre- 
gorius. But Gregorius learned of his approach in 
time to escape with all his men. His family estate, 
Bratsberg, was, however, burned by Eystein and his 
cattle hewn down. Next, Inge's excellent dock- 
yards, which had been built by Eystein I., were 
given over to the flames, and war seemed unavoid- 
able between the two kings, when Eystein, seeing 
his brother's superior strength, proposed to make 
peace. He agreed to pay Inge 360 marks in silver, 
one third of which was to be given to Gregorius as 
compensation for the destruction of Bratsberg. This 
fine, however, he failed to pay ; and, repenting of his 
placability, sent Inge hostile messages, accusing him 
of breach of faith. At last, when they had been ex- 
changing this kind of civilities for about a year, they 
met with hostile fleets near Fors in Ranafylke (iiS7) 
and prepared for battle. The greater part of Ey- 
stein's force, however, abandoned him, leaving him 
no choice but flight. He was captured by his 
brother-in-law, Simon Skaalp, who, after having 
allowed him to hear mass, coolly murdered him. 
There is a legend that a spring with healing powers 
burst forth on the spot where he was slain, and there 
were some who believed him to have been a saint. 

Inge was now lord of all the kingdom, although 
the noble and capable Gregorius Dagsson conducted 
the government and was the virtual ruler. A warm 



3 1 8 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. 

friendship bound the two together, based not only 
upon community of interests but upon real attach- 
ment. Inge's bad health, which unfitted him for ac- 
tion in the many serious crises of his life, made him 
dependent upon his sagacious and resolute adviser, 
and Gregorius, who was equal to his responsibility, 
kept a vigilant watch upon the king's enemies, and 
at the same time exercised, with a wise moderation, 
the power which had been put into his hands. It was 
natural that a man occupying such a position had 
many ill-wishers. There were those, of course, who 
envied him the place he held in the confidence of the 
king. Thus the great chieftain, Erling Skakke (the 
Lop-Sided), who had married Sigurd the Crusader's 
daughter, Christina, thought that he was entitled to 
the first place among the liegemen of the land. Er- 
ling traced his descent from the mighty Horda-Kaare 
(who lived in the reigns of Halfdan the Swarthy and 
Harold the Fairhaired), and was thus in kinship with 
Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, who played so great a 
part in the times of Olaf Tryggvesson and Olaf the 
Saint. He had made a crusade and fought the Sara- 
cens in the Mediterranean, and had received a wound 
in the neck, which compelled him to carry his head 
on one side. His wealth and fame made him now a 
conspicuous figure in the land, and it was obvious that 
whichever party he should join might thereby gain a 
preponderance. Erling was, indeed, himself aware 
of that fact, and refrained, for this reason, for a while, 
from committing himself. He was understood to be 
favorably disposed to King Inge and paid him the 
customary civilities, but there are indications that 



THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 319 

Inge did not trust him. At all events, he had no in- 
tention of buying Erling's unequivocal adherence at 
the only price at which it could be bought, viz., the 
dismissal of Gregorius. 

This was the situation of affairs when, after King 
Eystein's death, the remnants of his and Sigurd 
Mouth's party rallied around the latter's ten-year- 
old son, Haakon, and demanded for him a third part 
of the kingdom. Inge answered by outlawing his 
nephew and all his adherents. Gregorius was at that 
time in Konghelle, occupied with defending the fron- 
tier against the rebellious partisans of Haakon who 
had found a refuge in Sweden, and Erling Skakke 
availed himself of his absence to approach the king. 
Although the relation between the two liegemen 
was constantly growing more strained, the common 
danger, to which they were exposed from Haakon's 
party, made them postpone hostilities. A decisive 
battle was at last fought between the latter and King 
Inge at Konghelle (1159), and Haakon was defeated. 
Both Erling and Gregorius were present and to their 
valor the victory was largely due. A very slight 
provocation was now needed to bring them into 
collision, and this was supplied by a quarrel be- 
tween their men, which soon became a general 
fight, and would have become a battle, if King 
Inge had not personally interfered. In the mean- 
while Haakon, who had gathered under his banner 
robbers, outlaws, and all sorts of adventurers, began 
to ravage the frontier shires in Viken, and the pres- 
ence of Gregorius was again needed to keep him 
in order. He made an attack upon the estate of 



320 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Haldor Brynjulfsson, Gregorius' brother-in-law, and 
the latter's sister, Sigrid, was compelled to flee in her 
night clothes from the burning house, carrying her 
five-year-old son in her arms. This wanton destruc- 
tion Gregorius resolved to avenge, but during his 
pursuit of Haakon's robber band, he ventured too 
far out upon the insecure ice of the Bevje-Aa, fell 
through, and while struggling to get ashore was 
killed by an arrow (1161). King Inge wept like a 
child, when he heard of his friend's death, and swore 
either to avenge him or to die in the attempt. 
Scarcely a month had elapsed, when he was attacked 
by Haakon's band at Oslo, and fought a bloody bat- 
tle upon the ice of the Folden Fjord. Here he fell, 
defending himself desperately, after having been de- 
serted by King Gudrod of the Hebrides, who by his 
treason decided the battle in Haakon's favor (1161). 

Inge Crookback was the only one of Harold Gille's 
sons who was an honorable man. In spite of his 
physical weakness, he had courage and pluck, and a 
strong sense of loyalty to those who served him well. 
Fie was but twenty-five years old when he died. 

It was during his reign, but while his brothers 
still were alive, that the Cardinal Nicolas Break- 
speare was sent to Norway (1152) by Pope Eugene 
III., to arrange the ecclesiastical affairs of the coun- 
try. He established an archiepiscopal see in Nidaros, 
under the jurisdiction of which were included Nor- 
way and all its dependencies among the Scottish 
Isles, besides Iceland, Greenland, the Faeroe Isles, 
and the Isle of Man. As the first archbishop he 
appointed, in accordance with the wishes of King 



THE SONS OF HAROLD GILLE. 



321 



Inge, the Bishop of Stavanger John Birgersson. The 
bishopric of Hamar at Lake Mjosen also owes its 
foundation to the cardinal's visit. Nicolas Break- 
speare became, later, Pope under the name Hadrian 
IV., and always preserved a lively interest in the 
welfare of the Church in Norway. 




CHAPTER XXII. 

HAAKON THE BROAD-SHOULDERED, (l 161-1 162). 

Haakon Sigurdsson lost no time in proclaiming 
himself king of all Norway, though he dispensed pre- 
liminarily with the ceremony of a formal proclama- 
tion at O^rt-thing. As he was but a boy of four- 
teen, it was, of course, his advisers who dictated his 
actions. He was a tool in the hands of a few ambi- 
tious liegemen, who had staked their fortunes on 
the chance of his ascendancy. For the purpose of 
portioning out lucrative ofHces among his adherents, 
he called a secret meeting in the church of St. Hall- 
vard in Oslo. As it was of great importance to 
Erling Skakke to know how these men felt toward 
him, his wife Christina bribed the priest who kept 
the keys of the church, to conceal one of her friends 
where he could hear the proceedings. She then sent 
a messenger to her husband, enjoining him under no 
circumstances to trust Haakon or his party. But 
Erling was too conspicuous a man to be allowed to 
preserve neutrality ; and as he could not declare 
for Haakon, he was obliged to declare against him. 
He then proposed, though scarcely in good faith, to 
make the child, Nicholas Simonsson, the son of Simon 
Skaalp and Harold Gille's daughter Maria, the head 

322 



HAAKON THE BROAD-SHOULDERED. 323 

of the opposition and to proclaim him king. There 
were, however, serious objections to this course ; and 
after many consultations, Erlingallowed himself to be 
urged to do, what had been his intention from the be- 
ginning, viz., to proclaim his own son Magnus. Mag- 
nus, to be sure, was not of royal birth, but he had 
royal blood in his veins, being the grandson of Sigurd 
the Crusader. By shrewd manoeuvres, Erling suc- 
ceeded in rallying the greater part of King Inge's 
party about his son, who was but five years old, and 
to induce the liegemen to swear him allegiance. A 
thmg was then summoned to meet in Bergen, and 
Magnus was formally acknowledged as king (1161). 

The land was now divided between two tolerably 
evenly balanced parties, and only the sword could 
decide to which of the two the government should 
belong. After the great defeat at Oslo, however, 
Inge's party had lost much of its prestige, and Erling 
felt that foreign help was needed to secure its pre- 
dominance. He, therefore, sailed with his son and a 
large following of high-born men to Denmark and 
obtained the promise of help from King Valdemar 
the Great on condition of ceding to him the greater 
part of Viken. Haakon availed himself of his ab- 
sence to take possession of the fleet which had 
belonged to Inge and to have himself proclaimed 
king at O^x^-tJiing. His friend Sigurd of Reyr he 
raised to the dignity of earl, and delegated to him 
the task of watching for Erling, whose return from 
Denmark was expected. Erling was, however, a 
shrewd man who did what was least expected of 
him. He did, indeed, return from Denmark, but by 



324 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

a singular route. He crossed from Skagen in Jut- 
land to Agder, and thence steered northward to 
Bergen, where he killed or otherwise punished many 
who had given their allegiance to Haakon. Then, 
before Earl Sigurd had yet heard of his arrival, he 
attacked Haakon in Tunsberg and beat him. Having 
accomplished this and secured the recognition of 
his son in Viken, Agder, Rogaland, and Hordaland, 
he returned to Bergen where he spent the winter. 
Haakon, who found his strongest support in Tronde- 
lag, went into winter quarters in Nidaros. 

It was merely a question of time when the two 
rival kings, or the men who represented them, should 
meet for a final contest. Therefore, as soon as the 
ice broke up, preparations began on a grand scale. 
Erling's cunning again stood him in good stead, for 
by a stratagem he succeeded in surprising Haakon 
at Sekken, in Sondmore, and utterly destroying him 
(1162). The poor boy, who was but fifteen years 
old, jumped from his ship on board the one which 
lay nearest, and found himself unexpectedly among 
enemies. He told the men who he was, and surren- 
dered himself to their mercy. The battle was then 
virtually at an end ; but when Erling found that the 
men to whom Elaakon had surrendered were deter- 
mined to guard his life, he began a fresh attack, and 
managed it so that, in the tumult, the boy-king was 
slain. His own former candidate for the throne, 
Nicholas Simonsson, whom he had forcibly abducted 
from Bergen, he also contrived to get rid of in the 
same battle, and there can be little doubt that he 
was responsible for his death. 



HAAKON THE BROAD-SHOULDERED. 



325 



HaaRon Sigurdsson was king of Norway for about 
a year and three months. He was large for his age, 
and on account of the slenderness of his waist and 
the breadth of his shoulders, was called Haakon the 
Broad-Shouldered {Hcrdcbrcd). 




CHAPTER XXIII. 

MAGNUS ERLINGSSON (1162-II84). 

Erling Skakke had effectually cleared the way 
to the throne for his son, by killing every descendant 
of the royal house whom he could lay hands on. 
There was, however, another undoubted son of 
Sigurd Mouth left, whom he had not got into his 
power, besides several whose claims had not yet been 
pronounced upon. The bitterness between the party 
of Erling and that of Haakon was indeed so great, 
that a reconciliation was not to be thought of, and 
the latter, therefore, seized the opportunity to rally 
about a king whose royal descent was unquestioned. 
This new claimant was a boy named Sigurd Marcus- 
fostre (the foster-son of Marcus), probably ten or 
twelve years old, who had been brought up by Mar- 
cus of Skog, a friend and kinsman of Earl Sigurd of 
Reyr. Another magnate, the much-travelled Ein- 
dride the Young, transferred his allegiance to Sigurd, 
and a large number of proud and adventurous men, 
who could not tolerate Erling's supremacy, joined 
the new party. The peasants, however, who had 
hitherto suffered but little from the feuds of the 
kings, now began to find these roving bands trouble- 
some, especially when they levied contributions and 

326 



MAGNUS ER-LINGSSON. 32/ 

foraged wherever they went. Erling availed himself 
of this circumstance to excite their indignation 
against the " Sigurd party," as it was called, and he 
presently succeeded in forcing the hostile chieftains 
to give battle at Ree, near Tunsberg. Here Earl 
Sigurd fell, and Eindride the Young, Marcus of 
Skog, and the boy-king Sigurd were captured and 
executed. 

Although no formidable pretender was now left, 
Erling, whose ambition was nothing less than the 
founding of a new dynasty, did not feel secure in his 
possession of power. The Tronders, who had been 
partisans of Sigurd Mouth, were yet at heart devoted 
to the party which represented him, and the Danish 
king Valdemar was incensed, because Erling had not 
kept his promise in regard to the cession of Viken. 
To fortify himself against the contingencies arising 
from this situation, Erling found it necessary to cast 
about him for new allies, and the choice which he 
made was exceedingly shrewd. 

The Archbishop of Nidaros, at that time, was the 
able and imperious Eystein Erlendsson, who de- 
scended from a mighty Trondelag family, and there- 
fore, apart from his episcopal office, was a man of 
great influence. He shared the political sympathies 
of the community in which he lived, and was there- 
fore more disposed to be Erling's enemy than his 
friend. The sagacious chieftain, however, succeeded 
in propitiating him and in forming an alliance with 
him for mutual advantage. The result of their nego- 
tiations was, that a great meeting was called in Ber- 
gen, at which Norway was declared to be St. Olafs 



328 THE STORY ,0F NOR WA V. 

heritage and property, and the bishops, as his repre- 
sentatives, acquired the right to reject any legitimate 
heir to the throne, in case they held him to be un- 
worthy. The clerical and secular magnates were, at 
the death of a king, to select among his heirs the 
one who was to succeed him, the presumption being 
always in favor of the eldest son born in wedlock, un- 
less he was declared unworthy. In case of disagree- 
ment, a majority of votes was to decide the choice, 
but only in so far as the archbishop and the other 
bishops gave their consent. If the king left no 
heirs of whom the magnates approved, they were at 
liberty to elect any one whom they regarded as fit 
to guard '^ the right of God and the laws of the 
land.'* 

It is obvious that the secular and the clerical mag- 
nates here united for the spoliation of the crown, and 
in return for the concessions which Erling had made, 
as the nominal representative of the latter, the arch- 
bishop crowned Magnus in Bergen (1164), thereby 
repairing, in the eyes of many, the deficiency of his 
title. He had the friendship of the Church, which had 
it in her power to influence the people in his favor. 
He could therefore look forward without fear to 
meeting the Danish king, who was preparing to take 
forcible possession of the province which had been 
promised him. In order to test the sentiment of 
the people toward Magnus, Valdemar sent secret 
messengers with presents and friendly greetings 
to many prominent Tronders, some of whom com- 
mitted themselves in writing to join him, in case 
he invaded Norway. Their letters, however, fell 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON, 329 

into Erling's hands, and the offenders were pun- 
ished with severity. Some were killed, others 
outlawed, and again others were sentenced to pay 
enormous fines. When King Valdemar finally, in 
1 165, sailed with a large fleet to Norway he received 
a different reception from what he had expected. 
The number of the disaffected who were ready to 
do him homage was very small, compared to the 
number of those who were ready to fight him. He, 
therefore, returned to Denmark, without awaiting 
Erling's arrival. It is said that he suffered from lack 
of provisions ; and was indisposed to harry in a prov- 
ince which he hoped soon to lay under his crown. 

Before Erling had time to return this visit, a band 
of rebels was organized in the Oplands under the 
leadership of Olaf Guldbrandsson, a grandson on 
the mother's side of King Eystein I., the brother of 
Sigurd the Crusader. This new pretender attempted 
to rally the discontented chieftains under his banner. 
His adherents were called the Hood-Swains (Hette- 
sveiner), and he himself got the surname, the Unlucky 
(Ugaeva), because he came within an ace of captur- 
ing Erling at the farm, Rydjokel, north of Lake 
Oieren, but failed through mischance (1166). The 
Hood-Swains then for some time eked out a pre- 
carious existence in forest and field ; for the fear of 
Erling was so great that few who had any thing to 
lose dared to make common cause with them. He 
would probably have put an end to them without de- 
lay, if the hostilities with Denmark had not demanded 
his attention. It was, just then, the favorable mo- 
ment for attacking Valdemar's kingdom, as he was 



330 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

himself absent in Wendland and his kinsman, Buris 
Henriksson, who had the greater part of Jutland in 
fief, had promised to co-operate with the Norsemen 
and even to capture and kill the king on his return. 
Erling accordingly sailed with his fleet to Denmark 
and beat the Danes at Djursaa ; but was prevented, 
by the resolute conduct of Bishop Absalon, from 
reaping any benefit from his victory. A second 
campaign of Valdemar in Norway was as indecisive 
as the first, and finally, when both parties were tired 
of the aimless warfare, peace was concluded (1171), 
on condition that Erling should govern Viken as 
Valdemar's vassal and accept from him the title of 
earl. It is probable that Erling, after his return, 
made known only in part the terms of this peace ; 
for the national feeling had now begun to assert itself 
in Norway ; and it is scarcely credible that the peo- 
ple of Viken, who had, but a short time ago, mani- 
fested their hostility to the Danish king, should now 
willingly submit to becoming his subjects. What 
Erling did was really to confirm his own power and 
that of his son, at the expense of the integrity and 
the independence of his country. But in that respect 
he only followed the traditions of his class. The 
aristocracy of Norway usually (though there were 
many honorable exceptions) regarded their own in- 
dependence and power as more important than those 
of their country. It was not the first time that the 
tribal magnates bartered away faith and honor for 
personal gain. In the olden time, when Norway was 
but a loose agglomeration of tribes, who felt their 
kinship to the Dames and Swedes more strongly 



332 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

than they did their own geographical isolation, such 
conduct was often excusable. But in the days of 
Erling Skakke, the Norsemen were a nation, quite 
distinct from their neighbors, and the cession of a 
fertile province, like Viken, gave the Danes a foot- 
hold on the peninsula, and meant in the future, as 
Erling was shrewd enough to know, infinite compli- 
cations, wars, and the possible loss of independence. 

Having thus placated his foreign foes, Erling set 
himself to the task of exterminating the domestic 
ones. Olaf the Unlucky he had already, before the 
conclusion of the negotiations, beaten in two fights 
(at Stanger and at Dav, ri68), and had destroyed his 
band. Olaf had fled to Denmark, where he died 
(1169). There were, however, several pretenders 
left who had as much right to the throne as Magnus 
Erlingsson ; and Erling did not choose to wait until 
they became dangerous, before relieving himself of 
their presence. Sigurd Mouth's daughter, CeciHa, 
he sent to Vermeland and made her the mistress of 
a man, named Folkvid the Lawman. His own step- 
son, Harold, an illegitimate son of his wife Christina, 
and accordingly a grandson of Sigurd the Crusader, 
he beheaded, in spite of King Magnus' prayers and 
protests. That kind of clemency which involved 
future danger he professed not to understand. 

*' If I let him live," he said to his son, ''they will 
all want him for their king, and thee to kiss the lips 
of the axe." 

In spite of all his precautions, however, there was 
one scion of the royal house, and that the most dan- 
gerous of all, who escaped his attention. There 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 333 

was, at that time, living in the Faeroe Isles a youth 
named Sverre Sigurdsson, and the history of Norway 
for the next thirty years is chiefly his story. But 
before he enters upon the scene, a pretender named 
Eystein Meyla (Little Girl), who professed to be a 
son of Harold Gille's son Eystein, made a little stir 
and gathered about him the remnants of the rebel- 
lious party. He tried to obtain aid in Sweden, and 
was well received by Earl Birger in Gotland, who had 
married Harold Gille's daughter, Brigida. He could, 
however, not sustain himself against Erling's power, 
and was obliged to roam about with his band on 
mountains and in wildernesses, robbing and plunder- 
ing in order to keep from starving. His men thereby 
got a bad name, and on account of their dilapidated 
appearance and their habit of using birch-bark for 
shoes, the peasants called them derisively Birke- 
beiner, i. e., Birchlegs. The discipline of hardship 
and danger which their arduous life imposed upon 
them stood them, however, -in good stead; and in- 
significant though they were in number, they were, 
as Erling found to his cost, not a foe to be despised. 
However often he beat them, they would never stay 
beaten. With wonderful intrepidity and endurance 
they rallied after each defeat, and fought again, when- 
ever there was a chance of fighting. Many of them 
were undoubtedly little better than highwaymen, 
and to treat them as a political party would be an 
extravagant compliment. Their chief political pur- 
pose was, for a good while, to keep body and soul 
together. Gradually, however, their band was in- 
creased by political malcontents and even by men of 



334 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

high birth, who had quarrelled with Erling, or liad 
the death of kinsmen to avenge. In the summer of 
1 176 they were numerous enough to surprise the city 
of Nidaros and have their chieftain, Eystein Meyla, 
proclaimed king at the O^x^-thing ; but the following 
year their luck deserted them, and in the battle of 
Ree, near Tunsberg, they were overwhelmingly de- 
feated by King Magnus, and Eystein Meyla was slain 
(1177). The band then broke up, and the Birchlegs 
would perhaps never have been heard of again, if 
their fortunes had not become identified with those 
of a great man — Sverre Sigurdsson. 

Sverre was born in the Faeroe Isles. His mother 
Gunhild was, according to the legend, cook in the 
service of King Sigurd Mouth. She was not par- 
ticularly handsome, but quick-witted and intelligent. 
The king begged her to kill her child, as soon as it was 
born ; and being unwilling to listen to such a proposi- 
tion, she fled on a ship to the p^aeroe Isles, where she 
took service as milkmaid with Bishop Mathias. Here 
she bore a son, whom she named Sverre. A smith or 
combmaker named Unas came, the following spring, 
from Norway, and she suspected him of having been 
sent by the king to kill her child. She therefore hid 
it in a cave, which is yet called Sverre's Cave. Unas, 
however, followed her and discovered where the 
child was hidden, but promised not to harm it, if 
she would marry him. She consented, though re- 
luctantly, and returned with him to Norway. Sigurd 
Mouth was then dead, and she had nothing to fear. 
When the boy was five years old, he returned to the 
Faeroe Isles with his mother and step-father. The 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 335 

latter's brother, Roe, had been made bishop after the 
death of Mathias, and Unas was not insensible to the 
advantage of hving in a neighborhood, where he had 
such an influential relative. Sverre grew up in the 
belief that he was the son of Unas, and Bishop 
Roe, who took a fancy to him on account of his ex- 
traordinary intelligence, began to educate him for 
the priesthood. His ambition, as he himself asserts, 
did not then extend beyond a bishopric, or possibly 
a cardinal's hat. But when he was ordained as di- 
acomis (which is one of the lower grades of the priest- 
hood), his mother burst into tears, and to his ques 
tion why she was displeased at the honor conferred 
upon him, she answered : *' This is but a paltry 
honor, compared to that which by right belongs to 
thee. Thou art not the son of him whom thou 
thinkest, but of King Sigurd in Norway. I have 
kept this from thee, until thou shouldst reach the 
age of manhood." 

From that day Sverre's peace of mind was gone. 
Great thoughts tossed and whirled about in his soul 
and his life seemed poor and meaningless. His ambi- 
tion kept him awake in the night and bright vistas of 
future achievements beckoned him from afar. 

'' If I am born to a crown," he said to his mother, 
"then I will strive to win it, whatever it may cost 
me. Life has no more joy for me without it, and 
therefore I will stake life on it." 

Disregarding the warnings of the bishop he em- 
barked for Norway, and, without revealing who he 
was, spent some time in investigating the sentiments 
of the people toward King Magnus. This is highly 



33^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

characteristic of Sverre. He made no leap in the 
dark, but computed carefully the strength of the 
enemy whom he was to combat. What he learned 
was, however, far from encouraging. The people 
seemed everywhere devoted to King Magnus and 
well contented with his rule. Sverre also made the 
acquaintance of Erling Skakke, studied him thorough- 
ly, and talked with his men-at-arms, who found the 
priest from the Faeroe Isles a droll and entertaining 
fellow, and freely told him all the gossip of the royal 
household. To enter the lists, alone and penniless, 
against a power so formidable as this, seemed mad- 
ness. Sverre was too shrewd not to see that such an 
undertaking was hopeless. At the same time, he was 
not minded to return, after his dream of royalty, to 
his obscure priesthood on the bleak isles in the North 
Sea. He knew that Earl Birger in Sweden was mar- 
ried to a sister of Sigurd Mouth, and, as a forlorn 
hope, he crossed the frontier, revealed his origin to 
the earl, and begged him for aid. The earl, it ap- 
pears, who had reaped no glory from his alliance 
with Eystein M^yla, did not receive Sverre's request 
graciously, suspecting that he had been sent by 
Erling to mock him. Sverre, then, betook himself 
to his half-sister, Cecilia, who was the mistress of 
Folkvid the Lawman, and met here with a better 
reception. The rumor that a son of Sigurd Mouth 
had made his appearance in Sweden had, in the 
meanwhile, gone abroad and had reached the rem- 
nants of the Birchleg band. They made haste to find 
Sverre and requested him to be their chief ; but 
Sverre, seeing what condition they were in, declined. 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 33/ 

He made them a little speech, in which he remarked 
that the only thing he had in common with them 
was poverty ; and advised them, in conclusion, to 
select as their chief one of Earl Birger's sons, who 
were, like himself, descendants of Harold Gille. The 
Birchlegs acted upon this advice, but received no en- 
couragement from the earl. 

He told them, perhaps not without a humorous 
intention, that Sverre was their man, and advised 
them, in case he persisted in his refusal, to threaten 
him with death. Back they went, accordingly, to 
Sverre, and this time he yielded to their persua- 
sions. He must then have been twenty-four or 
twenty-five years old. And thus, with two empty 
hands and seventy ragged and badly armed men, 
he began the fight for the crown of Norway. He 
started from Vermeland southward for Viken, and 
so many gathered about him on the way, that by 
the time he arrived in the Saurbygd, he had 420 
men. These proclaimed him, in spite of his pro- 
test, king, and touched his sword in token of alle- 
giance. But when he forbade them to rob and plun- 
der the peasants, the majority grew discontented and 
left him. In order to test them he ordered them 
back to Vermeland, but by the time he reached the 
Eidskog, his band had shrunk to the original sev- 
enty. Sverre was now in a serious dilemma. He 
had announced himself as a claimant to the throne, 
thereby making himself fair game for any one who 
could slay him. And to wage war against King 
Magnus and Erling Skakke with seventy men was 
too absurd to be considered. In his extremity he 



33^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

sent messengers to Thelemark, where he had heard 
that some Birchlegs had sought refuge after the 
battle of Ree, and where there was said to be much 
dissatisfaction with King Magnus. Wherever he 
appeared, the peasants met him with hostile demon- 
strations, and many were those who wished to earn 
the gratitude of Earl Erling by destroying the run- 
away priest and his robber band. But it was in these 
desperate emergencies that the wonderful resources 
of Sverre's mind became apparent. Though he often 
had to live on bark and frozen berries, which were 
dug up from under the snow, his courage never failed 
him. Though in his journeys through pathless moun- 
tain wildernesses, his men dropped dead about him 
from exposure and hunger, and he had to cover him- 
self with his shield and allow himself to be snowed 
down, he kept a stout heart in his bosom and re- 
buked those who talked of suicide. It is told of 
him that during his march from Sweden to Nidaros, 
he came to a large mountain lake which it was neces- 
sary to cross. Rafts were made, but the men were 
so exhausted, that it took them a good while to fell 
the logs. One by one the rafts were launched and 
rowed across. Sverre himself boarded the last, but 
it was already so heavily loaded, that the water 
reached above his ankle. One man, however, who 
was half dead with weariness, had been left. He 
crawled down to the edge of the water and begged 
the king to take him along, as otherwise he must 
perish. The Birchlegs grumbled loudly, but Sverre 
commanded them to lay to and take the man aboard. 
The raft then sank still deeper and the king stood in 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 



339 



the icy water up to his knees. It looked for awhile as 

if they would 







-3 \c 



go to the bot- 
torn.' But 
Sverre did not 
-^hin-- 1 ] lien. 
Ih I idled, 




fallen in- 

t o the U 

water. The 

men, eager 

for safety, scram 

bled over into th( 

tree, and Sverre 

was the last tc 

leave the raft 

which, the mo 

ment his foot wa.^ 

oiT it, sank. Thii _ 

incident was re- _. .^__J^ 

garded by the " --^i-_-:- — - 

■Rirrhlf-o-Q oo ^ORNELEN ; a cuff on the island bremanger- 

AJiiumcgb dS LAND AT THE MOUTH OF THE NORDFJORD. 

a miracle, and strengthened their faith in Sverre's 
mission. 



340 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA V. 

At last, after incredible hardships, Sverre arrived 
early in June, 1177, at the goal of his journey. He 
had then 120 men, but fortunately his message to 
Thelemark brought him a reinforcement of eighty 
more. With these he performed the most amazing 
manoeuvres — dodging a force of fourteen hundred men 
which the partisans of Erling had sent against him. 
He anticipated with ease what his enemies would do, 
while they never could form the remotest conception 
of what he meant to do. Therefore the peasant army 
scattered in its search for him, and was easily beaten 
in separate detachments. It seems incredible that 
with his 200 or 250 warriors he could have beaten 
six or seven times their number, and the explanation 
lies near, that many of the Tronders in secret sym- 
pathized with him, though fear of Erling deterred 
them from openly espousing his cause. Their suc- 
cess now gave the Birchlegs courage, and they 
thronged joyously out to O^x^-thing, whither 
Sverre had summoned twelve representatives from 
each of the eight shires of Trondelag. Here he 
was proclaimed king of Norway (i 177). 

The rejoicings of the Birchlegs were however, a 
little premature. Erling Skakke was, by no means, 
dead yet, and he had no sooner heard of Sverre's 
performances in Trondelag than he gathered a large 
fleet and sailed northward to have a reckoning with 
him. Sverre did not care to meet the relentless 
earl just then, and he therefore sought refuge again 
in the mountains. For two years he led, most of 
the time, a life which no dog would have envied 
him ; now descending into the valleys on foraging 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 341 

expeditions, now again retiring into the wilderness 
and suffering untold privations. Occasionally 
hunger drove him to play a practical joke on the 
peasants, surprising them as an uninvited guest at 
their Yule-tide feasts, sitting down with his Birch- 
legs at the banqueting boards and devouring their 
holiday fare^ Altogether his hardships were not 
unrelieved by humor. Like Robin Hood and his 
Merry Men, he had pity on the small, and often dis- 
pensed a kind of rough justice to the great. His 
name was cursed from one end of the kingdom to 
the other ; as he himself remarked, many believed 
him to be the devil incarnate. Nurses scared 
naughty children with the threat that Sverre would 
come and take them, and the girls when they pounded 
the wet clothes at the river brink never failed to 
wish that Sverre's head was under the pounder. At 
the same time, a certain admiration for the power of 
the man and his undauntable spirit can scarcely have 
failed to affect those who had not directly suffered 
by his depredations. His many battles and guerilla 
fights with King Magnus and his liegemen, his second 
and unsuccessful attempt to capture Nidaros, and his 
skirmishing with the peasants cannot here be de- 
scribed in detail, though the saga, which was pre- 
pared under his own supervision, enables us to follow 
all his movements with tolerable accuracy. It was 
not until June, 1179, that he fought a battle which 
gave a decisive turn to his future. Then, he made a 
sudden descent from Gauldale upon Erling, who was 
feasting in Nidaros. 

'' Would that it were true," said the earl, when 



342 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the approach of the Birchlegs was announced to 
him ; " they shall then get their deserts, but for that 
matter, we may sleep soundly to-night, for I have been 
told that they have already retired into the moun- 
tains, and Sverre will not venture to attack us, when 
we are watching for him, as we are doing now." 

Accordingly he told his men to go to bed ; and this 
they did in a condition which made it no easy task 
to wake them. When Sverre, who, as usual, was 
well informed, was about to make his attack, he ad- 
dressed his men as follows : 

'* Now it is necessary to fight well and bravely ; 
for a beautiful victory is to be won. I will tell you 
what you can now obtain by your bravery. He who 
can prove by truthful witnesses that he has slain a 
liegeman shall himself become a liegeman ; and every 
man shall get the title and dignity of the man who 
falls by his hand." 

The Birchlegs needed no further encouragement. 
Poorly armed though they were, they stormed down 
over the hill-sides into the city. One fellow who 
was rushing along with a wooden club in his hand 
was asked what he had done with his weapons. 

*' They are down in the town," he answered ; *' as 
yet, the earl's men have got them." 

The alarm was now given, and bewildered and 
heavy with sleep, the earl's warriors tumbled out 
into the streets. King Magnus was also present, 
but the confusion was so great that he had much 
difficulty in rallying his followers. 

Many of the chieftains advised Erling to flee on 
board his ships and make his escape. 



. MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 343 

" I don't deny," he answered, " that that might 
seem to be the best ; but I can't endure the thought 
that that devil of a priest, Sverre, should put him- 
self in my son's place." 

He therefore retired outside the city to Kalvskin- 
det and there awaited the attack ; but though his 
force was far^ greater than Sverre's, he could not 
maintain himself against the furious onslaught of 
the Birchlegs. After a brief defence the earl was 
slain, and the flight became general. King Magnus, 
when he saw his father's bloody face upturned 
against the sky, paused in his flight, stooped down 
and kissed him. 

" We shall meet again, father mine, in the day of 
joy," he said, and hastened reluctantly away. 

Great was the rejoicing among the Birchlegs 
when it became known, that Earl Erling was dead. 
Sverre, who rarely missed a chance to make a speech, 
and who, moreover, was duly qualified for the office 
of conducting obsequies, made a funeral oration 
over his fallen foe. He drew the moral of the earl's 
life, and said some things which, no doubt, were 
true. But as he went on he gave more and more 
play to his caustic irony, and was, perhaps, less gen- 
erous than he could have afforded to be in his judg- 
ment of the dead chieftain. 

From this time forth, Sverre had the upper hand, 
and though the war lasted for several years more, it 
changed its character. It was no longer a fight between 
law and order on one side and a handful of outlawed 
adventurers on the other. It was rather a civil war be- 
tween two well-matched parties. Personally Magnus 



344 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

was Indeed no match for Sverre, but as the representa- 
tive of the old order of things — a monarchy deriving 
its power and support from the tribal aristocracy,* — 
he was no mean opponent. With Sverre and his 
Birchlegs a lower stratum of society arose — an un- 
couth and hungry democracy, — demanding its share 
of the good things of life, which had not hitherto 
been within its reach. It is Sverre's merit that he 
knew how to discipline these fierce and greedy ele- 
ments, and force them into subjection to law and 
order. While before the battle at Kalvskindet he 
stimulated their cupidity by offering each man the 
honors and dignities of the man whom he slew, 
he took good care, when the victory was won, to keep 
this cupidity within bounds. He kept his promises, 
raised men of low degree to high offices, rewarded 
fidelity and valor, and revolutionized society in a 
democratic spirit. But, considering the time in 
which he lived and the completeness of his victory, 
he showed remarkable moderation. He meant the 
new order of things which he founded to be lasting, 
and instead of turning his victorious Birchlegs loose 
to prey upon the state, he charged them with the 
maintenance of law and order, invested them with 
responsibility, and punished them if they exceeded 
their authority. He could do this without peril, 
because his men loved and admired him as much as 
they feared him. His power over them was com- 
plete. He had shared the evil days with them, 
braved dangers and hardships, and tested their man- 

* Munch : Det Norske Folks Historic, iii., 107. Sars ; Udsigt 
Qverden Norske Historic, ii., cap, iv. 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 345 

hood. An intimate comradeship and attachment 
had grown up between them, which, however, did 
not exclude authority on one side, and respect 
and obedience on the other. 

How much Magnus had lost by the battle of 
Kalvskindet is indicated by the fact that his ad- 
herents now get a party name and sink to the position 
formerly occupied by their opponents. They were 
called '' Heklungs," because it was told of them 
that they had once robbed a beggar woman whose 
money was wrapped up in a cloak {Jiekl). *' Birch- 
legs," from having been a term of reproach, now 
became an honorable appellation which Sverre's 
veterans were not a little proud of."^ 

Magnus spent the year after his defeat mostly in 
Bergen where he had many adherents, went thence 
to Viken, and made every effort to gather an army 
with which to destroy his enemies. He must have 
had considerable success, for when he went north- 
ward to Nidaros, he had a force much more numer- 
ous than the one Sverre could muster. Nevertheless 
he suffered an ignominious defeat at the Ilevolds 
(i 1 80), near Nidaros, and had to flee head over heels 
to Bergen. Thither Sverre followed him, and came 
near being caught in a trap by one of Magnus' fol- 
lowers, Jon Kutiza, who came with an army of 
peasants to kill that " devil's priest." The devil's 
priest was, however, as usual, too clever for the 
Heklungs, and sent them flying, as soon as he lifted 
his sword. Magnus, in the meanwhile, had sought 
refuge in Denmark, where King Valdemar received 

* Munch : iii., 106. 



34^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

him well, and this kingdom became the base of op- 
erations against Sverre. Long time did not elapse 
before the Heklungs were again on the way north- 
ward with thirty-two ships, and came within an ace 
of making an end of Sverre in the Salto Sound ; but 
as usual he slipped out of the trap by a daring strata- 
gem. Soon after, Magnus overtook the Birchlegs at 
Nordness (ii8i), near Bergen, and this time Sverre, 
who was anxious not to lose his prestige, determined 
to stay and give battle, although his fleet was but 
half as large as that of his enemies. The Birchlegs 
were, as a rule, not good sailors, and never fought as 
well on the sea as on dry land. The Heklungs made 
a fierce onset, and were gradually gaining several 
advantages, when Sverre stepped forw^ard where the 
fight was hottest, lifted his hands toward the sky, 
and sang in a loud, clear voice the Latin hymn, 
" Alma chorus domini." Hostile missiles beat like 
hail about him ; but though he had no shield, he re- 
mained unharmed. Just then Magnus, flushed with 
warlike zeal, stormed forward and was on the point 
of boarding one of the hostile ships, when he re- 
ceived a wound through the wrist. The pain made 
him pause abruptly, and in so doing he slipped upon 
the bloody deck and fell backward. The Birchlegs 
sent up a tremendous shout of victory, and Orm 
King's-Brother (a half-brother of Harold Gille's sons), 
hearing that the king was slain, cried : '' Then the 
fate of the realm is decided." 

Instantly he cut the ropes which held the ships to- 
gether, and, breaking the battle-line, fled as fast as he 
could. Magnus, getting on his feet, called vainly to 



MAGNUS ERLINGSSON. 347 

his men that he was ahve, and begged them not to 
flee frofn a victory. But the confusion soon became 
general, and Sverre, who was quick to take advantage 
of it, captured ship after ship and forced the rest into 
ignominious flight 

The war was still continued for three years with 
changing fortunes. In fact, Magnus, whenever he 
returned from Denmark, where he sojourned in the 
intervals between his defeats, seemed as formidable 
as ever, and had little difficulty in gathering an army 
under his banner. Sverre, therefore, in order to put 
an end to an internecine conflict which was draining 
the resources of the country, proposed to share the 
kingdom with him, and, when this proposal was re- 
jected, that they should reign alternately for a term 
of three years each. This well-meant offer Magnus 
likewise repelled, and, after repeated interviews and 
fruitless negotiations, hostilities were resumed. 
Three times during the years 1181 and 1182 the 
Heklungs attacked Nidaros, where the Birchlegs had 
their head-quarters, and fought with variable success. 
In 1 183 Sverre assumed again the offensive, sur- 
prised Magnus in Bergen, and compelled him to flee 
to Denmark, abandoning his fleet, his treasures, and 
the crown regalia. Archbishop Eystein, who had 
been one of the staunchest partisans of the Heklungs, 
had, some years before, fled to England, and had 
hoped to injure Sverre by declaring him in the ban 
of the church. Sverre was, however, not in the least 
disturbed by the ban, while the archbishop was 
greatly disturbed by the loss of his see. Perceiving 
that Magnus' chances of regaining his power were 



348 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

diminishing, the wily prelate opened negotiations with 
the excommunicated king and received hi!n back 
into the bosom of the Church, on condition of being 
restored to his dignities. 

A last attempt to recover what he had lost was 
made by Magnus in the summer of 1184. He then 
sailed northward to Bergen with a fleet of twenty-six 
ships and about three thousand two hundred men. 
He learned that Sverre had sailed up into the Nore- 
fjord (a narrow arm of the Sognefjord) with a few 
ships and a small force of men, for the purpose of 
punishing the Sognings, who had killed his prefect, 
Ivar Darre. Sverre was, as a rule, not easily sur- 
prised. But in the present instance he had not the 
faintest suspicion of danger until he saw the galleys 
of the Heklungs steering right down upon him. 
Escape was not to be thought of. He was shut in 
on all sides. The Heklungs, seeing that he had but 
fourteen ships, and that his force scarcely numbered 
more than half of theirs, were disposed to give thanks 
to God for having at last delivered their enemies into 
their hands. But it is sometimes a doubtful blessing 
to have such enemies as the Birchlegs delivered into 
one's hands. At all events, Magnus began to have 
doubts, as soon as battle had commenced, as to who 
were the captors and who the captives. The Birch- 
legs fought with heroism, and the Heklungs fell 
in great numbers and many leaped into the sea. 
Among the latter was King Magnus. It was mid- 
night before the bloody work was at an end, and by 
that time two thousand men had lost their lives. 
All the ships of the Heklungs and much booty fell 



MAGN-US ERLINGSSON. lAf) 

into Sverre's hands. When the morning broke there 
could be seen through the clear waters of the Sogne- 
fjord the corpses of slain chieftains lying outstretched 
on the bottom, while the fishes swam around them. 
The corpse of King Magnus was not found until two 
days after the battle, and was then taken to Bergen, 
where it was buried with great solemnity. 

In the battle of Norefjord fell, beside the king, the 
flower of the Norse aristocracy. King Inge's son 
Harold, Orm King's-Brother and his son Ivar Steig, 
and a large number of proud chieftains, were among 
the slain. They had pinned their hope to King 
Magnus, and with his death their dominion was at 
an end. With Sverre Sigurdsson's reign begins a 
new epoch in the history of Norway. 





CHAPTER XXIV. 

SVERRE SIGURDSSON (1182-I202). 

It was a dangerous precedent Sverre established 
when, without any other proof of his royal birth than 
his own assertion, he ascended the throne of Norway. 
The prospect was thus opened to any ambitious ad- 
venturer, skilled in mendacity and the use of arms, to 
snatch the crown at the point of the sword. The 
mere fact that a doubt existed in the minds of many, 
as to Sverre's origin, was in itself demoralizing. It 
destroyed that bond of loyalty which had hitherto 
bound the people to the descendants of Harold the 
F'airhaired, and made it easy for unscrupulous pre- 
tenders, by the prospect of booty, to entice men into 
rebellion. We see, therefore, during Sverre's reign 
and that of his immediate successors, an abundant 
crop of pretenders and rebellious bands start up in 
different parts of the country, only to be cut down 
after a more or less extended existence by the con- 
stituted authority. 

That Sverre, in a measure, had himself to thank 
for this state of things he must have been well 
aware ; and the frequency of his insistence upon 
his mission to deliver Norway from the illegal sway 
of Erling Skakke's son shows how anxious he was, 

350 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON: 35 I 

lest the same thought should occur to others. Even 
though he was the son of Sigurd Mouth (which, is in- 
deed, probable), he must have seen that the people 
were suffering no hardships from Magnus* mild exer- 
cise of his power, while the wars which were directly 
and indirectly inflicted upon the realm by his own 
pretendership shook it to its very core. In. the role 
of a deliverer Sverre was therefore scarcely sincere, 
and a certain insecurity in his position, springing, 
perhaps, from an inward doubt, made him at times 
appear with less dignity than we might expect in a 
man of his genius and power. Thus, when in 1181 
a man named Erik, whose origin seems wrapped in 
obscurity, obtained permission to prove by ordeal 
that he was Sigurd Mouth's son, Sverre insisted upon 
inserting in his oath the words *' and Sverre's brother," 
thereby obtaining, as it were, a surreptitious proof of 
his own descent from the royal house. Erik, how- 
ever, objected to assuming this double responsibility, 
but succeeded in proving the truth of his assertion 
in regard to himself. He was from this time named 
Erik Kingsson ; but pledged himself never to aspire 
to the crown. Sverre gave him first command of his 
household troops and made him later Earl of Viken. 
Sverre's first endeavor, after having become sole 
ruler in the land, was to strengthen the foundation 
of his throne. An alliance with the aristocracy who 
had hitherto wielded the greatest influence was out of 
the question, first because the magnates had been the 
partisans of Magnus, and secondly, because to the 
Birchlegs, to whom Sverre owed his power, such an 
alliance would have been odious. He therefore de- 



352 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

termined to seek the supports of his kingship among 
the same class, from which his Birchlegs had come, 
viz., the tenants, small farmers, and, in general, 
among the lower strata of the population. These 
men had hitherto been at the mercy of the chief- 
tains ; and though it was in the interest of the latter 
not to injure or maltreat them, their position was 
one of dependence and penury. They were practi- 
cally beyond the pale of the law ; because, if wronged 
by one of their superiors they lacked the means and 
influence to prosecute him at the thing. In order to 
improve the position of these lowly people and 
thereby gain their friendship, Sverre appointed a 
new class of officers, the so-called lawmen, whose 
business it should be to procure justice for the 
oppressed at small expense and without delay. As 
one of the first appointed lawmen, Gunnar Grjonbak 
in Trondelag, said : " King Sverre, when he gave me 
this office, bade me administer justice among cot- 
tagers, not among chieftains." The lawmen w^ere 
thus judges who, backed by the authority of the 
crown, were charged with the interests of the small, 
both in their mutual quarrels and in their quarrels 
with the great. That their appointment was a 
shrewd act, on Sverre's part, is obvious. 

Another class of officers who, though they were 
not first appointed by Sverre, had more definite 
functions and duties assigned to them by him, 
were the prefects {syslu-madr"^). They were not, 

* Vigf usson translates syslu-madr, ' ' prefect, bailiff, king's stew- 
ard " ; but he also translates gjald-keri and ar-madr with steward, 
and in this case correctly. The only English term I know for an ofifi- 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 353 

like the liegemen, royal vassals who held land in fief 
and exercised independent authority, but servants of 
the king and the representatives of his power.* They 
collected the royal revenues in their districts, and 
watched over the interests of the crown. They thus 
deprived the liegemen of their principal functions 
and a large share of their income. As a measure in- 
tended to weaken the influence of the aristocracy, 
the appointment of these prefects was therefore most 
effective. Sverre was not minded to share his power 
with these haughty magnates, many of whom had 
not hesitated to barter away provinces and enter into 
alliances with foreign princes against their own king. 
He wished the crown to be strong enough to curb 
this unruly element, and by the aid of the small pre- 
vent, the great from growing above his head. With 
great shrewdness and statesmanlike insight he began 
this work, which in one way or another absorbed his 
time and energy during his entire reign. 

Seeing that the king meant to deprive them of 
their ancient privileges, the remnants of the liege- 
men's party began to look about for a new pre- 
tender, whom they could put in the field against 
Sverre. Such a one was soon found in the person of 
a monk named Jon, who professed to be a son of 
King Inge Crookback. Though his story was evi- 
dently mendacious, there gathered about him a 
considerable band, which received the name Kuv- 
lungs or Cowlmen. Not all the former adherents 

cer whose functions correspond approximately to those of the syslu- 
madr is prefect, as the office now exists in France. Even this term 
is, however, imperfect. * Munch, iii., io8. 



354 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

of Magnus did, by any means, join this band, but 
yet a sufficient number to make it formidable. Now 
began the usual depredations along the coast, attacks 
upon Bergen and Nidaros, indecisive fights and sud- 
den retreats, occasional victories, and a, great deal of 
destructive guerilla warfare. There was a suspicion 
that Archbishop Eystein, who hated Sverre, was the 
power that kept the Kuvlungs in motion, and it was 
obvious that he secretly favored them. The arch- 
bishop, however, died in 1188 having, as Sverre as- 
serted, made peace with him on his death-bed. Soon 
after, the rebel band was destroyed in Bergen (1188) 
and their leader slain. 

If Sverre had expected to sit at ease in the enjoy- 
ment of his power, he must by this time have been 
undeceived. He had indeed sown the wind, and 
he reaped the whirlwind. No sooner were the Kuv- 
lungs out of the way than a new band, called the 
Varbelgs (Wolf Skins), was organized by the chieftain 
Simon Kaaresson, who picked up a pretender in the 
person of a child, named Vikar. This boy, who was 
but a few years old, was born in Denmark, and was 
alleged to be a son of King Magnus Erlingsson. But 
the deception was a little too barefaced to gain cred- 
ence, and the Varbelgs came to an inglorious end at 
Bristein, near Tunsberg(i 190), where both the little 
Vikar and Simon Kaaresson were slain. Rebellion 
had by this time grown so popular that any plausible 
impostor, who chose to take the risks, might expect 
to gain a considerable number of adherents. The 
many who were unable or indisposed to put up with 
the new order of things, preferred to stake all on a 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 355 

desperate chance rather than submit meekly to the 
terms of Sverre's amnesty. It was, therefore, of 
small consequence who headed the rebellion ; the 
rebellious spirit which was abroad was sure to find 
expression, and was never in want of a leader. The 
successors of the Varbelgs were called Oyeskeggs 
(the Islanders), because their band was recruited 
largely from the Orkneys, where Earl Harold fav- 
ored them. Their chieftains were Hallkel Jonsson, 
a brother-in-law of King Magnus, Sigurd Jarlsson, an 
illegitimate son of Erling Skakke, and Olaf, a brother- 
in-law of Earl Harold, of the Orkneys. All these had 
nominally submitted to Sverre and had received 
many favors at his hands. Nay, even after they 
had hatched their conspiracy, Olaf continued to act 
as the king's friend and sit at his table. Sverre was, 
however, not deceived by his duplicity. One day 
when they were talking together the king said : 
" Thou, Olaf, oughtest to have been faithful to 
me." 

'' Why do you say that, my lord ? " asked Olaf. 

The king, instead of answering directly, made a 
thrust with his knife in the air and said : " The fol- 
lowers of our foes are now swarming about us." 

At this the traitor took alarm and quickly left the 
hall. Outside he met his foster-son Sigurd, who was 
said to be a son of King Magnus, and was later 
pushed into the role of a pretender by the Oye- 
skeggs. 

'' There we narrowly escaped a trap, foster-son," 
said he, as he took the boy by the hand and hurried 
away. He immediately set sail for the Shetland 



35^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Islands, where he could mature his plans without 
interference. In the summer of 1193 he appeared 
with Hallkel and Sigurd Jarlsson and a large flock of 
rebels in Viken, where shire after shire submitted to 
them without resistance. There were, probably, no 
royal troops in Viken at this time, and the inhabi- 
tants, who had formerly been partisans of King 
Magnus, had not recently acquired any deep sense 
of loyalty to Sverre. When provisions became 
scarce, the rebel chieftains went aboard their ships 
and began to prey upon the shipping in the Belts. 
In this way they gained such large amounts of goods 
and money that they became known as the *' Gold- 
legs " {Gullbciiicr). In the autumn of 1193 they 
sailed northward, full of courage, hoping soon to 
make an end of Sverre, who was understood to have 
but few people about him. They met him at Flors- 
vaag, near Bergen, and prepared for battle. His 
force amounted to about twelve hundred men, while 
the Oyeskeggs had two thousand. As it was too 
late to fight, when the fleets first approached each 
other, Sverre betook himself to the city with a few 
followers in order to get reinforcements. On his 
way back, it occurred to him that it might be a good 
plan to pay the rebels a visit. In a small boat he 
rowed stealthily, under cover of the darkness, up to 
the ship where the chieftains were having a council 
of war, and had the pleasure of hearing Hallkel 
Jonsson unfold the whole plan of the battle. He 
took his own measures accordingly, and by his well- 
calculated manoeuvres frustrated their plans. The 
battle was, however, a bloody one, and fiercely con- 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 357 

tested. It looked badly for the Birchlegs for a 
while, but the arrival of ninety well-armed men from 
the city decided the day in Sverre's favor. The king 
of the Oyeskeggs leaped overboard, but was pierced 
by a spear while he was swimming shoreward. All 
the rebel chieftains, except Sigurd Jarlsson, and 
nearly all the men were slain (1194). 

While thus indefatigably engaged in quelling re- 
bellion, Sverre had another struggle on his hands 
which made even heavier demands upon his vigilance 
and energy. The church is not apt to look with favor 
upon one who deserts it, even for a throne, and the 
fact that the king had been admitted to the lowest 
order of the priesthood, so far from reconciling the 
priests to his authority, placed them in a hostile atti- 
tude to him. In spite of this, however, there is little 
doubt but that he could have bought their friendship 
by making the proper concessions. If he had been 
willing to ratify the agreement between Archbishop 
Eystein and Erling Skakke, hold his crown in fief 
from St. Olaf, which was but another name for the 
hierarchy, and give the bishops the right to exact 
similar conditions from his successors, his former 
deaconship would have proved no obstacle to his 
receiving the support of the Church. Sverre knew, 
however, too well the spirit of the priesthood to 
venture upon such concessions. It was his policy to 
make the monarchy strong enough to quell the un- 
ruly spirit of the aristocracy and give peace and 
security to the people. The Church had from the 
beginning taken sides against him, and secretly or 
openly aided every band of rebels which had endeav- 



358 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

ored to overthrow his government. No wonder that, 
apart from all other considerations, he was not favor- 
ably disposed toward the Church. 

When Archbishop Eystein died, after having 
made a pretended peace with the king, Bishop Erik, 
of Stavanger, was elected as his successor. It is 
said that Eystein, on his death-bed, obtained 
Sverre's reluctant consent to this choice. At all 
events, Erik was chosen, and was no sooner warm in 
his seat, than he showed his disposition toward the 
king. Without consulting Sverre, he named for his 
successor to the bishopric of Stavanger one of his bit- 
terest enemies, Nicholas Arnesson, a half-brother of 
King Inge Crookback. Sverre naturally objected, 
first because Nicholas had never taken orders, sec- 
ondly because his election had taken .place in an 
illegal manner, the king having not been present. For 
all that, he agreed in the end to waive his objections, 
because his queen, Margaret (a sister of the Swedish 
king, Knut Eriksson), interposed in Nicholas' be- 
half. The latter, who was a master of intrigue, had, 
by his humility and flatteries, gained the favor of 
the queen, and even Sverre, who was ordinarily a 
keen judge of men, was made to waver in his dis- 
trust of him. He was, however, soon to have his 
eyes opened. As soon as Nicholas had received his 
investiture, he again joined the ranks of the king's 
enemies, making common cause with the archbishop, 
who was indefatigably quarrelling with Sverre about 
the alleged prerogatives of his ofifice. First, he 
wanted the fines and penances, payable to the Church 
in Trondelag, to be rendered according to actual 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 359 

weight in silver, and not in the coin of the realm, 
which was but worth half its nominal value. Sec- 
ondly, he wished to reserve for himself and his fel- 
low bishops the right of making all clerical appoint- 
ments, and thirdly, he claimed the privilege of 
surrounding himself with a kind of ecclesiastical 
court, and keeping ninety to one hundred men-at- 
arms in his service, although the law only allowed 
him thirty. To settle these points, Sverre sum- 
moned the archbishop to Frosta-//^/;/^, and, after 
having read him the law, decided against him. Full 
of wrath, the haughty prelatfe left the country, seek- 
ing refuge with Archbishop Absalon in Denmark, 
who received him cordially. Here he composed a 
letter to the Pope in which he bitterly complained 
of the king's usurpations and infringements of the 
rights of the Church. The Pope responded by put- 
ting Sverre in the ban and releasing his subjects 
from their oath of allegiance. Before the bull 
reached Norway, however, Sverre had induced the 
bishops, remaining in the country, to crown him at 
Bergen (June 29, 1194). Even Bishop Nicholas, 
who had recently been transferred from Stavanger 
to Oslo, had participated in this ceremony, though 
probably much against his will. Sverre treated the 
papal bull, at first, as a mere fraudulent invention of 
archbishops, Erik and Absalon, but that he was far 
from believing this to be the case is shown by the 
fact that he sent embassadors to Rome to present 
counter charges against the archbishop, and to explain 
the causes of the controversy from his point of view. 
As far as we know these embassadors accomplished- 



360 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

nothing, and on their homeward way they died sud- 
denly in Denmark (1197), having probably been 
poisoned. Soon after, a falsified papal bull was pub- 
lished by Sverre, in which the ban was revoked. It 
is not improbable that he was himself responsible 
for this falsification. It was a question of '* to be or 
not to be " with him, and he had been long enough 
connected with the Church to know how to soothe 
his conscience in such a matter. It is, moreover, 
scarcely credible that any one else would have com- 
mitted the fraud in his favor. 

Seeing that they could not destroy Sverre by 
spiritual weapons only, his enemies resorted once 
more to the sword, and this time chance played into 
their hands in a most remarkable manner. The 
Byzantine emperor Alexius sent, in 1 195, a Norse- 
man named Reidar the Messenger {Sendemand), to 
Norway to hire him 200 mercenaries, and Sverre, 
though he was of opinion that Norway had no troops 
to spare, was persuaded to permit the emperor's 
emissary to enlist such as desired to follow him. Rei- 
dar went to work without delay and gathered a con- 
siderable force, but in the meanwhile Bishop Nicho- 
las had approached him and induced him to enter 
into a league for the overthrow of Sverre's govern- 
ment. Next to Nicholas himself, the most important 
man in the league was Sigurd Jarlsson, the son of 
Erling Skakke, and formerly a chief of the Oye- 
skeggs. A boy named Inge, alleged to be the son 
of King Magnus Erlingsson, was their candidate 
for the throne. The band received the name of 
Bagler, i. e., Crookmen, after bagall, a crook or bish- 



SVERHE SIGURDSSON. 36 1 

op's staff. They were, owing to the accession of 
Reidar's mercenaries, much more formidable than 
any of the former bands which had risen in rebel- 
Hon against Sverre. In the first battle which the 
king fought with them, they had no less than 125 
ships and 5,000 men. This encounter, which took 
place in Salto Sound, in Viken (1196), was inde- 
cisive, though some advantage seems to have been 
gained by the Baglers. At all events, Sverre dared 
not remain in Viken, but steered northward to Nid- 
aros, leaving the rebels masters of all the southern 
provinces. They had here the sympathy of the pop- 
ulation, and experienced no difficulty in having the 
pretender Inge proclaimed king at Borgar-Z/^/;/^. 
Sverre, in the meanwhile, levied troops in the north- 
ern provinces, and in the summer of 1197 attacked 
the rebels at Oslo, where they suffered a crushing 
defeat. Here his prudent foresight and strategic 
skill insured him a splendid success, while Nicholas 
showed himself a cowardly braggart, devoid of gen- 
eralship. He tried to make his men believe that the 
swords of the Birchlegs would not bite, because they 
were in the ban, and when this lie had been effectu- 
ally disproved, the bishop was among the first to 
take to his heels. 

" Ride forth hard now, my lord," one of the Bag- 
lers called to him. *' Our men sorely need your help 
and exhortation ; for, methinks, in sooth, that the 
swords of the Birchlegs bite pretty well." 

"■ No, let us ride away as fast as we can," Nicholas 
made answer; '' for now the Devil is loose." 

After the battle the prelate sent a priest to Sverre 



362 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

with offers of peace ; but the latter, who knew the 
treacherous character of his foe, would not treat 
with him, unless he appeared in person. He prom- 
ised him safe-conduct, averring that he had other 
means of gaining fame than by killing a man like 
him. Nicholas made no response to this proposi- 
tion ; but instead of presenting himself before the 
king, hastened with his men overland to Nidaros, 
attacked the city, burned Sverre's fleet, which was 
lying in the fjord, and besieged the block-house, 
which finally fell by the treason of its commander, 
Thorstein Kugad. This was a severe blow to the 
king, and placed him in the subsequent contest at a 
great disadvantage. To meet the rebels on the sea 
with the small ships which were now left to him, was 
hazardous, as the battle of Thorsberg, near the mouth 
of the Drontheim fjord, during the following year 
plainly showed (1198). The Birchlegs were here 
worsted, in spite of their splendid bravery, and many 
of the king's staunchest friends and adherents were 
slain. Sverre hastened thence to Bergen, where the 
Bagler chief, Sigurd Jarlsson, in the meanwhile had 
been raging with fire and sword. He had burned 
those of Sverre's ships which he had found in the 
harbor, as well as the houses of the Birchlegs in the 
city, and he now laid siege to the block-house, where 
Queen Margaret was with all her household. As 
this rude fort was built of wood, his first intention 
was to fire it, and he began, for this purpose, to pile 
up wood for an enormous bonfire close to the walls. 
Sigurd Borgarklett, the commander of the fort, suc- 
ceeded in lighting the wood-pile, before it was large 




THORGHATTEN, A FAMOUS ISLAND WITH A NATURAL TUNNEL, IN NORDLAND. 



364 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

enough to do any harm. The Baglers began to pile 
up wood once more, but again the besieged flung 
burning barrels of tar down upon them and drove 
them off. After many fruitless attempts, Sigurd 
Jarlsson gave up the plan of firing the block-house. 
It was not, however, only his enemies without, who 
gave Sigurd Borgarklett trouble. The queen, at the 
sight of the fire, grew frantic and insisted upon sur- 
rendering ; and all her women surrounded the brave 
commander, tearfully imploring him not to expose 
them to being burned alive. A friend of Sverre, 
named Aura-Paul, to whose care the queen had 
especially been entrusted, feared that the lamenta- 
tions of the women might have a discouraging effect 
upon the garrison, and in order to save the com- 
mander from their importunities, he persuaded them 
to enter the room above the gate, which had been 
used as a jail, and there await the issue of the nego- 
tiations with the Baglers. To this they readily con- 
sented ; and were forthwith locked up, with full 
permission to wail to their hearts' content. When, 
however, the danger from fire was past, Aura-Paul 
went to the queen and asked her, what she would 
give him if he could induce the Baglers to depart. 
She offered him a great sum of money; whereupon 
he begged the loan of her seal. He now sat down 
and wrote a letter in the queen's name to two priests 
in the city, urging them to use every means in their 
power to detain the enemy, as the king was coming 
with a large force the next day and would be sure to 
make an end of them. This communication he 
despatched by a small boy who managed to be 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON, 365 

caught by the Baglers and, on being searched, had to 
deliver up the letter. Sigurd Jarlsson, without sus- 
pecting the deceit, hurried away as fast as he could, 
not, however, without having punished the two 
priests, who, though professing friendship for him, 
yet were in communication with the queen. This 
was regarded by the Birchlegs as a delightful joke; 
for the priests were, like most of their order, enemies 
of the king. But to make this comedy of errors 
complete, Sverre did actually, to the surprise of his 
friends, arrive on the day appointed in the letter. 
Nevertheless, it was fortunate that Sigurd Jarlsson 
had taken to his heels ; for the main force of the 
Baglers were pursuing the king southward, and if the 
two divisions had effected a junction in Bergen, 
Sverre would scarcely have been able to hold his 
own against them. 

The summer of 1 198, which became known among 
the people as the Bergen summer, was passed by the 
hostile armies in and about the latter city, and there 
was almost an incessant skirmishing, besides some 
hard fighting, A battle at the Jonvolds resulted in 
favor of the Birchlegs, but was not decisive enough 
to destroy the Baglers' power of resistance. 

The summer passed, neither party gaining any de- 
cided advantage. Then Bishop Nicholas, despairing of 
destroying the Birchlegs as long as they had the town 
to fall back upon, determined to deprive them of this 
shelter. He accordingly set fire to the town and 
burned the greater part of it. The Birchlegs had 
enough to do in saving the block-house, and could 
give but little aid to the citizens in their efforts to 



366 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 

limit the conflagration. It is doubtful, however, if 
the Baglers gained any thing by this unwarrantable 
destruction, for the citizens of Bergen, a large num- 
ber of whom had been favorably inclined toward 
them, became from this day their enemies. Sverre 
was, indeed, compelled to abandon his position, leav- 
ing, however, a garrison in the block-house. But the 
Baglers scarcely profited by his departure, as the 
country round about had been denuded of provi- 
sions, and want compelled them to move. Bishop 
Nicholas then sailed northward to Nordmore and 
Haalogaland, where he met with no opposition ; and 
desertion from the ranks of the Birchlegs increased 
his army until its very magnitude caused him embar- 
rassment. Oddly enough, at this very time, when the 
king's fortune was at its lowest ebb, the traitor, 
Thorstein Kugad, who had surrendered the block- 
house in Nidaros, returned to him. He flung him- 
self at Sverre's feet, embraced his knees, and cried : 

" Happy I am now, my lord, that I am so near 
you — that I can touch you. -^ * * Dear my lord, 
receive me, and let me never more part from you." 

Though his former comrades demanded his death, 
Sverre gave him full pardon. The king's desperate 
position was indeed sufficient guaranty of the sin- 
cerity of Thorstein's repentance. The whole coun- 
try, outside of Trondelag, was now in the hands of 
the rebels. The royal fleet was burned, and even 
many of the veteran Birchlegs had deserted. Then, 
as the final crushing blow, came the bull of Pope In- 
nocent III., laying the country under interdict, pro- 
hibiting the celebration of pubhc worship and the 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 367 

administration of the sacraments, in all those parts 
of the kingdom that yet remained faithful to Sverre. 
If the vicar of Christ had contented himself with 
hurling the thunderbolt of divine wrath against the 
king, he might perhaps have achieved his destruc- 
tion. But the Pope, finding that the bull of his 
predecessor had been practically ineffective, aimed 
this time to affect the popular conscience, and he 
addressed to it certain arguments which showed 
how completely he had allowed himself to be de- 
ceived by Sverre's enemies. In his bull he described 
the king in a manner which must have appeared ab- 
surd to those who knew him ; he attributed to him 
crimes which all knew that he had never committed ; 
and exposed thereby — not Sverre's wickedness, but 
his own fallibility and partisanship. The king, in- 
stead of meekly submitting to an unfair sentence, 
felt, therefore, justified in coming forward in his 
own defence. He wrote or caused to be written, 
under his immediate supervision, a polemical bro- 
chure, in which he reviewed his relation to the 
Church and ably defended his conduct. The be- 
havior of the clergy he subjected to a scathing 
criticism, showed the inconsistency of their position, 
as the partisans of Baglers, and exposed the true mo- 
tive of their actions. The author's shrewdness, abil- 
ity, and learning are manifest in every page, and the 
lucidity of expression and the plain common-sense 
arguments seem to reveal the well-known personality 
of Sverre. That it had the effect of preventing many 
from leaving him, who otherwise might have been 
frightened into desertion, is very probable. The dis- 



368 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

loyal clergy had, however, better facilities for reach- 
ing the people than the few who were yet faithful, 
and they improved their opportunity in inciting the 
peasants to an unreasoning, fanatical hostility to the 
excommunicated king. The Pope, in the meanwhile, 
was active in stirring up foreign enemies against him, 
and wrote the most urgent letters to the kings of 
Sweden and Denmark, exhorting them to merit the 
gratitude of God and his vicar, the Pope, by destroy- 
ing the sacrilegious monster, Sverre. Happily, these 
exhortations had no effect ; for King Knut of Den- 
mark had his hands full at home, and King Sverke 
of Sweden was rather favorably inclined toward his 
neighbor. 

In this desperate strait Sverre's true greatness re- 
vealed itself. He had been accustomed to fight 
against heavy odds, and the sense of danger served 
to bring all his energies into play. With undaunted 
resolution he set to work to repair his losses and to 
equip himself once more to meet his foes. His first 
task was to build a fleet instead of the one which the 
Baglers had destroyed ; for without ships he would 
have been at their mercy. The Tronders whom he 
called upon for help assisted him faithfully ; and by 
the beginning of spring (1199) he had eight large 
galleys ready to be launched. Besides these he ex- 
pected a number of others which the peasants were 
building for him throughout Trondelag. The city 
of Nidaros he fortified with a large new block-house, 
and built hurling-machines which were used for 
throwing stones at the enemy. Early in June the 
Baglers appeared in the fjord with a large fleet, and 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 369 

the usual skirmishing commenced. All their efforts 
to capture the city were, however, unavailing, and 
in the battle at Strindso (June, 1199) their great 
fleet, which had formerly given them an advantage 
over the Birchlegs, "fell into Sverre's hands. The 
battle was stubbornly contested, and both parties 
were wrought up to a warlike fury which refused to 
give or to take quarter. The king, whose gentleness 
and humane sentiments had made his stern resolu- 
tion and courage the more admirable, put here a blot 
upon his fair name. He yielded to the importunities 
of his men, and allowed them to avenge the death of 
their kinsman upon the prisoners. It is but fair to 
ascribe this single act of cruelty to the momentary 
ferment of his blood and the hate that flared up uncon- 
trollably against the authors of all his misfortunes. 

After the battle of Strindso the Baglers fled 
southward with the few ships that were left to them, 
and were pursued by Sverre, w^ho did not, however, 
succeed in overtaking them. They found, as usual, 
a refuge in Denmark, where they continued to plot 
mischief. They felt themselves, in point of strength 
and resources, so superior to Sverre that it seemed 
to them merely a question of time, when they should 
gain possession of the entire land. Even in Nidaros, 
where the king was yet able to hold his own, the 
rebels had many sympathizers among the clergy. 
After his victory at Strindso, Sverre sailed south- 
ward and went into winter-quarters in Oslo. The 
Baglers took advantage of his absence to visit Nidaros 
where they fought indecisively with an army of 1,800 
peasants who undertook to defend the city. 



370 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

In the meanwhile a storm was drawing up over 
Sverre's head more menacing than any which he had 
hitherto weathered. The preaching of the disloyal 
clergy Avas beginning to show its effects. The peas- 
ants of Viken and the Oplands rose in rebellion, and 
poured in great torrents toward Oslo, for the purpose 
of destroying the excommunicated king. From 
three different directions their armies came march- 
ing, intending to effect a junction near the city, and 
by their greatly superior numbers overwhelm Sverre. 
The king had then only three thousand men, while 
the forces of the peasants, all told, must have num- 
bered forty or fifty thousand. To fight against 
such odds would seem to be simple madness. Never- 
theless he determined to sell his life dearly. Never 
did his genius shine more brightly than in the hour 
of danger. Calmly and confidently he addressed his 
men, assigning to each commander his task, and ex- 
horting his Birchlegs to be brave, and to trust in 
God. Then, by a series of swift manoeuvres, he pre- 
vented the junction of the hostile armies, leaving 
his sons, Sigurd Lavard and Haakon, to guard his 
rear, while he engaged and defeated the two main 
divisions of the peasant army. The force under 
Sigurd and Haakon, which only numbered four hun- 
dred and eighty men, had in the meanwhile been 
routed by the third division, numbering twenty-four 
hundred, and the king would have had small chance 
of escape, if the peasants had had the wit to follow 
up their advantage. Instead of that they began 
carousing in the city, and even refrained from firing 
the royal fleet, which was in their power, because 



3/2 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

they regarded it already as their own. When, how- 
ever, the sanguinary battle which was in progress 
out on the ice was at an end, the hilarious peasants 
discovered their mistake. Sverre came, not as van- 
quished, but as victor. Then there was hurly-burly 
of battle once more — fight, flight, and pursuit. The 
yeomen, sturdy fellows though they were, and not 
unaccustomed to war, lacked discipline, and above 
all they lacked a competent commander. Sverre 
chased them so hotly that they had to fling away 
their shields and trust for safety to their speed alone. 
The exhausted Birchlegs had now need of rest, 
and the king ordered the famous loor Andvake to be 
blown, and gathered the army about him. Food and 
drink were brought from the city and the hungry 
warriors were about to refresh themselves, when they 
perceived that the fugitives of the several peasant 
armies had united, and were returning to challenge 
once more the fortune of battle. The rebels had 
discovered that they were yet, with a proper plan of 
attack, formidable enough to destroy the Birchlegs. 
Their chief purpose now was to kill Sverre, because 
they supposed that, if he were dead, the resistance of 
his party would soon collapse. Reluctant though 
they were to fight again, the Birchlegs responded 
bravely to their king's exhortation. They stormed 
down to the frozen fjord, where the peasants were 
forming their battle line, and made a fierce onset. 
Sverre, as was his wont, rode about among them, 
was now at the front, now in the rear, and with his 
clear eye directed each manoeuvre. The peasants, 
when they saw him, cried out : " Stab him, hew 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 373 

him down, kill him, cut his horse from under 
him." And from all sides resounded hoarsely the 
shout: ''Stab him, kill him." But in their eager- 
ness to slay Sverre, they neglected to preserve order. 
Their battle array broke up into a series of wild and 
irregular charges, the weak points of which Sverre 
was not slow to detect. The Birchlegs rushed in 
among them and routed them with great carnage. 
A liegeman, named Aale Hallvardsson, whom the 
rebels mistook for the king, because he was similarly 
dressed, fell after a brave defence, and an exultant 
shout was heard, that the king was slain. The Birch- 
legs were for a moment stricken with terror, and 
stopped in their pursuit. But suddenly Sverre came 
dashing forward on his horse ; the warriors rallied 
joyously about him, the loor was blown for a fresh 
attack, and at the head of his men the king charged 
once more and broke the last resistance of the dis- 
comfited peasants. 

This was the greatest victory that Sverre ever 
won, and altogether one of the most extraordinary 
battles ever fought in Norway. For the peasants a 
day of accounting was now at hand, and the king 
made them feel the heavy hand of his wrath. A 
policy of gentleness and amnesty they would have 
mistaken for fear ; only severity could inspire 
them with respect. Many farms were burned and 
great fines in money and provisions were exacted 
from those who had taken part in the rebellion. One 
incident will suffice to show, however, how little 
Sverre's heart was in this work. As he was approach- 
ing a farm, a little boy came running out of the 



374 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

woods and begged him piteously not to burn his 
home. 

" Nay, surely it shall be spared, since thou askest," 
answered Sverre, gently ; " and if the peasants had 
stayed at home and begged for peace, no farm would 
have been burned. Tell them now, that the rest will 
be spared." 

Forthwith he gave orders to his men to refrain 
from further destruction. 

The heroic endurance which Sverre had developed 
in this long and exhausting struggle had indeed 
weakened the cause of the Baglers, but had by no 
means deprived them of their courage. A civil war 
and particularly a war of classes, such as this was, 
arouses fiercer hates and passions than international 
contests, and must therefore continue, until one party 
or the other is utterly humbled or destroyed. The 
Norse magnates, who formed the bone and sinew of 
the Bagler party, hated Sverre, not only because they 
believed him to be an upstart and an adventurer, but 
as the destroyer of the old oligarchic government, in 
which they had secured the lion's share of power. A 
class, so formidably intrenched both in the institu- 
tions and the traditions of the country, could not be 
overthrown at one blow ; nor could it be humbled 
by misfortunes and reverses. It was not in his cleri- 
cal capacity, but as the most eminent representative 
of the old aristocracy, that Bishop Nicholas became 
their leader ; and the adherence of the clergy to the 
Bagler party was not so much the result of a personal 
sympathy with him, as of a common animosity to 
the democratic king, the leveller of distinctions, the 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON, 375 

champion of the rabble. These proud descendants 
of the great historic families of Norway were of the 
same blood as the Norman nobility of England, 
and though they did not live in castles, nor dress in 
satin and ermine, yet they were animated by the same 
spirit. They were ready to fight for their rights, 
whether real or imagined, even against their own 
king and country. 

In the spring of 1201 Sverre called fresh levies 
from the ever faithful North, and sailed again south- 
ward, leaving a garrison in Bergen under the com- 
mand of his friend, Dagfinn Peasant, and his son-in- 
law Einar, surnamed the Priest. He learned that 
the Bagler chief, Reidar Messenger, with about two 
hundred and forty men had taken possession of the 
block-house at Tunsberg, and he thought the oppor- 
tunity a favorable one for annihilating one of his 
most dangerous enemies. To this end he laid siege 
to the block-house, which, however, from its situation 
oh the mountain, overlooking the town, was well- 
nigh impregnable. His attempt to take it by storm 
failed, and his various ingenious stratagems were like- 
wise unsuccessful. After a siege of twenty weeks, 
the Baglers were reduced to such a strait that for 
their Christmas dinner they had to eat boiled and 
chopped ropes, made out of walrus and sealskin. 
They could not endure this long; one by one they 
began to desert, in the dead of night, and instead of 
being slain, as they expected, they were received 
with kindness by the king. The Birchlegs grumbled 
loudly at his forbearance, but he rebuked them 
sternly, and they had to own that he was right. Last 



37^ THE SrORY OF NORWAY. 

of all came Reidar Messenger with the little band 
that had remained with him. Sverre not only spared 
his life, but he treated him with the greatest consid- 
eration. He warned the Baglers not to eat too 
heartily after their long fast, and cared for those 
among them who were ill. Many who disregarded 
his advice died ; while others dragged themselves 
through life with ruined health. The chief himself 
also suffered much, although Sverre exerted all his 
medical skill to cure him. 

The incessant hardships of war and the strain 
upon his energies which they involved had, in the 
meanwhile, undermined the king's strength, and he 
was after a while compelled to take to his bed. 
When he left Tunsberg in January or February, 1202, 
he had his bed made on the raised poop of the deck, 
and that of the Bagler chief was placed at his side. 
And there lay, side by side, the conqueror and 
the conquered, gazing up into the wintry sky, and 
watching the clouds that chased each other under 
the wind-swept vault. Often they talked pleas- 
antly together, and each learned to admire the re- 
markable qualities of the other. Reidar, who had 
been a crusader, told of his adventures and observa- 
tions in Constantinople, and the Holy Land ; and 
the days passed quickly to the king, while he listened 
to the entertaining narrative. On the arrival of the 
fleet in Bergen, the king was moved to the royal 
mansion where his bed was made in the great hall. 
When he felt that his death was near, he called some 
of his trusted friends to him and declared solemnly, 
in their presence, that he had but one son living, 



SVERRE SIGURDSSON. 377 

namely Haakon, and if any one else claimed to be 
his son, he was a rebel, and an impostor. Then he 
ordered a letter, which he had dictated to Haakon, to 
be read and sealed, and he charged his nephews, 
Haakon Galen, and Peter Steyper, to deliver it into 
his hands. 

" I wish," he said, " before receiving the extreme 
unction, to be lifted into my high-seat, and there 
await life or death." 

When the sacrament, in spite of his excommunica- 
tion, had been administered to him, he continued: 
*' My kingship has brought me more tribulation, dis- 
quietude, and danger, than ease and pleasure, and 
methinks that mere envy has impelled many to be- 
come my enemies, which sin may God now forgive 
them, and judge between them and me and in my 
whole cause." 

King Sverre expired March 9th, 1202. He was 
in point of genius the greatest king who has ever 
ruled over Norway. A bright, clear, and resolute 
spirit dwelt within his small frame. His presence of 
mind and his wonderful fertility of resource saved 
him out of the most desperate situations. Firmness, 
and gentleness were admirably united in his char- 
acter. A clear-sighted policy, based upon expedi- 
ency as well as upon conviction, governed his actions 
from the beginning of his reign to its end. He pos- 
sessed the faculty of attaching men to him, even 
when he punished them and restrained their lawless 
passions. Though he did not possess the beauty or 
the magnificent physical presence of the earlier kings 
of Norway, he knew how to inspire respect as well 



37S THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

as love. The charm of his conversation, and his af- 
fabihty of manner impressed every one who came in 
contact with him. '' What especially makes his per- 
sonality interesting," says Munch, "^ ''is the remark- 
able mingling of seriousness and humor, which seems 
to be peculiar to the Norse national character, and 
which, in his demeanor, was so striking that he may 
almost be regarded as its embodiment." 

In many respects he was much in advance of his 
age. Thus, it is told of him that, so far from regard- 
ing the national vice, drunkeness, as an amiable 
weakness, for which no man was any the worse, he 
endeavored earnestly to check it, and punished with 
severity those who committed excesses under the in- 
fluence of drink. As far as his constant occupation 
with war permitted him, he encouraged trade and 
all industrial pursuits. For learning he had a high 
regard ; was himself a good Latin scholar and well 
read in the law, and displayed much zeal in procur- 
ing for his sons the best educational advantages that 
the time afforded. In spite of the hardships and 
dangers, to which he was constantly exposed, he lived 
to be fifty years old, — an age which, since the death of 
Harold the Fairhaired, but one king of Norway had 
reached. 

* Munch, iii., 391. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

HAAKON SVERRESSON (1202-I204). 

In his dying message to his son Sverre advised 
him to make peace with the Church. He foresaw 
that the interdict which was weighing heavily upon 
the land would be an increasingly powerful weapon 
in the hands of the Baglers, and would continue to 
alienate the hearts of the people from the king, 
Haakon, who had not personally been engaged in 
the controversy, could, without loss of dignity, make 
overtures for a reconciliation, and might, if neces- 
sary, make concessions. The bishops were, however, 
so tired of their long exile and dependence upon 
foreign bounty, that they accepted with eagerness 
his offer of peace and hastened to return to their 
bishoprics. What the terms of the reconciliation 
were we do not know. The old Archbishop Erik, 
who was now blind and decrepit, was especially glad 
to return home, as his patron, Archbishop Absalon, 
had recently died, and his position in Denmark, as a 
dependent of the king, was scarcely an agreeable 
one. No sooner had he set foot on Norse soil than 
he declared the interdict revoked, without even 
awaiting the Pope's consent — a rashness for which 
he was later rebuked by Innocent III. The Pope, 

379 



380 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

however, though he no doubt enjoyed wielding the 
tremendous weapons of his wrath, acquiesced in the 
terms of the peace, and had no fault to find with the 
new king's attitude toward the Church. The fact 
was, Haakon Sverresson was a gentle and lovable 
character, who delighted in peace rather than war. 
All the people, weary of the long and bloody civil 
feud, felt drawn toward him and hastened to ac- 
knowledge him. After his proclamation as king at 
OtYQ-thing, and the revocation of the interdict, he 
was undisputed master of the land ; and the star of 
the Baglers seemed forever to have set. Many of 
their influential chiefs deserted to Haakon ; and their 
so-called king, Inge, was slain on an island in 
Mjosen by his own men and the peasants. Bishop 
Nicholas exchanged temporarily the helmet for the 
mitre, and kept as quiet as his restlessly intriguing 
mind would permit. Reidar Messenger had, after 
his capitulation at Tunsberg, sworn fidelity to Sverre, 
and meant to keep faith with his son. It seemed 
therefore that, at last, all dangers were removed, and 
that the young and popular king had a prospect of 
a long and happy reign. Then, as a bolt of light- 
ning out of a sunny sky, came a calamity which sud- 
denly plunged the country again into war and misery. 
We have heard that Sverre married Margaret, the 
daughter of the Swedish king, Erik the Saint. He 
had with her no sons, but a daughter, Christina. His 
two sons, Sigurd Lavard, who died before his father, 
and Haakon, were born on the Faeroe Isles ; and 
their mother was Astrid, the daughter of Bishop 
Roe. It is probable that Sverre was married to her, 



HAAKON SVERRESSON. 38 1 

but it is told that he did not bring her to Nor- 
way, because she had been unfaithful to him. Ac- 
cording to a tradition, however, she was brought to 
Norway by her son, who gave her a large estate near 
Nidaros and treated her with consideration and 
kindness. This act Haakon's step-mother, the queen- 
dowager Margaret, regarded as an insult to her, and 
determined to leave the country. Being a passion- 
ate and imperious woman, proud of her birth and 
relentless in her hate, she imagined that she was not 
accorded the honor that was her due at the court, 
and she particularly took offence because the king 
claimed precedence before her. Being averse to 
strife, he did his best to conciliate her, but with 
small success. The queen-dowager betook herself 
to Oslo with her daughter, intending thence to pro- 
ceed to Sweden, where she owned large estates. The 
king, though he did not dispute her right to leave, 
denied her right to take with her his half-sister, 
whose natural guardian he was; and sent his cousin, 
Peter Steyper, to induce her to desist from her reso- 
lution. The queen, however, remained obdurate. 
She would not concede that Haakon had any right 
over her child. Finding threats and persuasion un- 
availing, Peter Steyper attempted a strategem. He 
burst into the princess' room, while her mother was 
taking a bath, crying at the top of his voice that the 
Baglers had come to town. Christina implored him 
in terror to save her ; whereupon he seized her in 
his arms and ran with her down to the piers, jumped 
on board of his ship, and set sail. The queen, as 
soon as she heard the noise, rushed into the street, 



382 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

and reached the pier just as the ship was gHding 
from its moorings. Beside herself with wrath, she 
screamed after the Birchlegs : '' Would that I may 
live to see the day when I shall cause you as great a 
sorrow as you to-day have caused me." 

Much more that she cried they did not hear, for 
her voice came more faintly to them through the 
wind, as the distance increased. From that day she 
hated the king, though it is by no means clear that 
he approved of Peter Steyper's violence. Finding 
her position in Sweden less agreeable than she had 
expected, she was soon induced to return to Nor- 
way, where she became a centre of mischievous in- 
trigue. Among her partisans was the king's cousin, 
Haakon Galen, a son of Sigurd Mouth's daughter 
Cecilia and Folkvid the Lawman, a brave and reck- 
less youth who was deeply in love with the queen's 
niece, Mistress Christina.'^ Over him the two women» 
both of whom were arch-plotters, had considerable 
influence, and the desire rose in them to put him on 
the throne in his cousin's place. King Haakon, who, 
if he had suspected his stepmother's design, would 
have been on his guard, furnished her now with the 
opportunity for accomplishing her evil purpose. He 
invited her and her daughter to his Yule-tide feast, 
offering her the high-seat at his own side. So far 
from being conciliated by this offer, the queen burst 
forth vehemently : ^' Long shall I remember how I 
sat in the high-seat with my lord. King Sverre, on 
Christmas Eve. Bring my greeting to King Haakon, 

* Not the same as the Princess Christina, Sverre's and Margaret's 
daughter. 



HAAKON SVERRESSON. 383 

and tell him that I shall not share his high-seat 
to-night." 

The king was aggrieved at this rebuff, and sent a 
second message, begging her at least to allow his 
sister Christina to grace his feast by her presence. 
The messenger added that the king was very wroth. 

'' Does he suppose," cried Margaret, '^ that I do 
not remember how he caused my daughter to be 
torn away from me at Oslo, without his reminding 
me of it into the bargain ? " 

To everybody's surprise, however, she began to 
dress for the feast, and soon both mother and daugh- 
ter entered the banqueting hall, where they were 
received with much honor. 

The feast was a merry one and good cheer reigned 
in the hall. Toward the evening of the day after 
Christmas, however, the king began to feel indisposed, 
and grew worse as the night advanced. He had 
himself bled, but the illness made rapid progress, 
until he lost consciousness. His body turned blue 
and swelled up terribly. On New Year's Day, 1204, 
he died, it was evident that he had been poisoned, 
and the rumor soon got abroad that it was the queen 
who had killed him. Although Haakon Galen did 
his best to lead suspicion away from her, a general 
clamor arose that she should prove her innocence by 
carrying glowing irons. This the queen refused to 
do, and in consideration of her rank obtained per- 
mission to appoint a substitute who should submit 
to the ordeal in her place. This substitute, however, 
though he betrayed no fear of the result, was found 
to have been badly burned, and the belief now be- 



384 



THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 



came general that the queen was guilty. The ex- 
citement against her was so great that Haakon Galen 
was obliged to conduct her secretly away from Nid- 
aros, and to hide her in the house of one of his kins- 
men in the country. Later she made her escape to 
Sweden, where she probably passed the rest of her 
days on her estates. Both the Princess Christina and 
her cousin Christina remained in Norway, the latter 
as Haakon Galen's mistress. 

The death of Haakon Sverresson plunged the 
country in deep grief,, not only because he was per- 
sonally beloved, but because it was supposed that 
he left no issue. 

The opportunity was now at hand for a new crop 
of pretenders to fight for the crown and spread once 
more anarchy and desolation over the land. 




CHAPTER XXVI. 

GUTTORM SIGURDSSON (1204), AND INGE BAARDS- 
SON (1204-12 1 7). 

The legitimate heir to the throne after Haakon's 
death was his nephew, Guttorm Sigurdsson, as on 
of his brother, Sigurd Lavard. In spiteof his tender 
age, the Birchlegs made haste to elect him, with the 
understanding that Haakon Galen, with the title of 
earl, should conduct the government. There were, 
however, some of the Birchlegs who were dissatisfied 
with this arrangement, partly because they were 
jealous of Haakon Galen, partly because they felt 
that, in such troublous times, a king was needed, 
who should be something more than a name or a 
figure-head. The Baglers, too, strange to say, were 
ill at ease, because they feared that, Haakon Sver- 
resson's restraining influence being removed, the 
Birchleg chiefs would give free rein to their passions 
of avarice and vengeance. Half in self-defence they, 
therefore, reorganized their troop under the leader- 
ship of an impostor, calling himself Erling Stone- 
wall (Steinvegg), who pretended to be a son of King 
Magnus Erlingsson. A pretender of this name had, 
during the reign of Sverre, made some little stir, and 
had been imprisoned by King Knut of Sweden in a 

385 



386 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

tower, whence he had escaped by means of a rope, 
made out of his bed-clothes. The rope proved, how- 
ever, to be too short, and in letting himself drop to 
the ground, Erling broke his hip. He was overtaken, 
oh his flight, by Sverre's men and in all probability 
slain. Neverthless, it required audacity rather than 
proof of royal birth, in those days, to figure as 
a pretender ; and the second Erling Stonewall, 
though probably few at first believed in him, soon 
had a considerable following. It was of no use that 
Bishop Nicholas opposed him, and urged his own 
nephew, Philip, a grandson of Harold Gille's queen, 
Ingerid, for the chieftainship. When Erling de- 
manded the right to prove his birth by the ordeal of 
fire, the bishop told him bluntly that the result was 
in his hands. Under such circumstances, the pre- 
tender found it more to his advantage to make terms 
with the bishop and receive his assurance that the 
ordeal should turn out successfully. Erling, on his 
side, promised, when he became king, to make Philip 
his earl, and in other respects satisfied the prelate's 
demands. The latter had, in the meanwhile, by con- 
ferences with his peasants, ascertained that Philip's 
candidacy was regarded with great disfavor, because 
he neither had nor pretended to have a drop of royal 
blood. The peasants utterly refused to recognize 
him, and threatened to rebel, in case he was elected. 
It was therefore to the bishop's advantage to keep 
faith with Erling. The ordeal accordingly took 
place with great solemnity in the presence of the 
Danish king, Valdemar the Victorious, and proved 
successful. 



GUT TOR M SIGURD SSON.— INGE BAARDSSON. 387 

Erling was then proclaimed king, and received as 
a present from Valdemar a fleet of thirty fine ships. 
In return he recognized him as his feudal overlord 
and gave him hostages. The party of the magnates 
was thus faithful to its traditions, in sacrificing pa- 
triotism to private interests. With the aid of the 
powerful Danish king the party had, indeed, a good 
prospect of crushing the disheartened and disunited 
Birchlegs, who just at that time received a fresh 
blow in the death of their newly elected king. 
Christina, Haakon Galen's mistress, could not allow 
so slight an obstacle, as the life of a child, to stand 
between her and the goal of her wishes. If Gut- 
torm were dead, her lover would have the best 
chance of succeeding him, being on his mother's side 
a grandson of Sigurd Mouth. It was, therefore, no 
mere accident that Guttorm died ; and with all the 
symptoms of poisoning. He said that the *' Swedish 
woman " had taken him upon her lap and stroked 
him caressingly over his whole body. Soon after he 
felt, as if needles were piercing his flesh, and before 
long he expired in great agony. Though Christina's 
guilt was obvious, her lover had yet sufficient in- 
fluence to have the matter hushed up ; and in order 
to give her the full benefit of his protection, he 
married her soon after. A meeting was now called 
in Nidaros to elect a new king. Earl Haakon, who 
was a favorite with the army, seemed to have every 
chance in his favor ; and he would probably have 
been the choice of the Birchlegs, if Archbishop Erik 
had not opposed him, on account of his relation to 
Christina. The guilt thus defeated its own object. 



388 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Several candidates were discussed, some of whom 
were related to Sverre only on his mother's side and 
thus had no consanguinity with the royal house. 
The most prominent among these was Peter Steyper, 
who had the additional advantage of having married 
a daughter of King Magnus Erlingsson. After long 
deliberations, the chiefs finally decided to leave the 
choice to the peasants, who would then be sure to 
stand by the king whom they themselves elected. 
The peasants were according summoned to Oere- 
thing where they conferred the royal dignity upon 
Inge Baardsson, a younger half-brother of Haakon 
Galen and like him, on the maternal side, a grandson 
of Sigurd Mouth. No sooner did the Baglers hear 
that the Birchlegs had chosen a new king than they 
started northward from Tunsberg, in order to test 
his mettle. The caution of Bishop Nicholas pre- 
vailed, however, over the counsel of the more war- 
like chiefs, and after some unimportant fights in and 
about Bergen, the rebels betook themselves to Den- 
mark, where they had always a safe place of refuge. 
King Inge and Earl Haakon, therefore, found no op- 
position, when they visited Viken, and the peasants, 
though the great majority of them sympathized with 
the Baglers, had no scruple in swearing them alle- 
giance. In fact, the long war was having a demoraliz- 
ing influence upon the people, and its barbarizing 
effects began to be visible in many ways. To save 
their lives, the yeomen were obliged to feign friend- 
ship for every pretender who came along with his 
band, and swear him fidelity, or fly to the woods, 
leaving their farms a prey to the marauders. Even 



GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON, 389 

the ties of blood which had been exceptionally 
strong among the Norsemen, began to be disre- 
garded, as members of the same family were im- 
pelled, by diverging interests, to join different parties. 
It was no rare occurence that brother fought against 
brother, and father against son. Thus it is told of a 
Bagler that during the attack upon Nidaros in 1206, 
he was hotly pursuing a Birchleg whom he finally 
killed. As he stooped over the dying man, in order 
to deprive him of his arms and garments, he dis- 
covered that it was his own brother. A great laxity in 
all moral obligations resulted from this state of 
things. Kings and chieftains broke their words ; 
enemies who had surrendered on promise of pardon 
were ruthlessly slain ; murder and rapine filled the 
land. 

Under these circumstances it was no great privi- 
lege for the young and inexperienced Inge to wear 
a crown which merely put a price upon his head. In 
the spring of 1206, while he was in Nidaras celebrat- 
ing the wedding of his sister, the Baglers surprised 
him in the night and slew a large number of his men. 
The king himself escaped by pure chance, threw 
himself into the river, and swam, hajf-clad, in the icy 
water, out to a ship, and clung for a while to the 
anchor cable. More dead than alive he reached the 
shore, and would probably have perished from ex- 
posure, if the Birchleg, Reidulf, who was also fleeing, 
had not found him, wrapped him in his cloak, and 
carried him on his back to a place of safety. Yet 
Inge never overcame the effects of this terrible 
night. He grew morose and despondent, and never 



390 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

regained his former light-heartedness. It was not 
merely that he felt discredited as a chieftain by the 
disgrace of having been surprised by his enemies in 
a drunken sleep, in the house of his mistress ; his 
health, too, had suffered a shock from which it was 
slow to recover. 

On their return from Nidaros, the Baglers paid a 
visit to Bergen, where they expected to starve the 
Birchleg garrison in the block-house into surrender. 
But here they reckoned without their host. Earl 
Haakon, though he had not been present at the as- 
sault upon his brother in Nidaros, felt impelled to 
avenge it. He therefore sailed southward with a 
small fleet and about seven hundred men, overtook 
the rebels in Bergen and inflicted upon them a severe 
defeat. Thus blindly pursuing partisan advantage, 
Baglers and Birchlegs kept killing each other, for- 
getting that they were all Norsemen, who would, in 
the end, suffer by the devastation and exhaustion of 
their common country. Year after year they con- 
tinued surprising each other in Nidaros, Bergen, 
Tunsberg, and Oslo, burning each other's ships, and 
robbing each other's treasures ; but they appeared to 
avoid a decisive battle which would have given an 
overwhelming advantage to one party or the other, 
thereby securing peace to the land. The death of 
Erling Stonewall in 1207 enabled Bishop Nicholas to 
carry out his desire to make his nephew, Philip Simons- 
son, king of the Baglers. But Philip made no change 
in the policy of his predecessor, persevering in the 
same aimless marauding, which could scarcely be 
dignified by the name of war. The parties were, in- 



GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 39 1 

deed, so evenly matched, that it seemed hopeless for 
the one to destroy the other, for which reason the 
political stake in the struggle was almost lost sight 
of, while immediate profit yet furnished a motive 
for continuing in arms. 

It was while anarchy was thus rioting and despond- 
ency reigning throughout the land, that a hope sud- 
denly sprang up, like a star out of the depth of night. 
It was well known that King Haakon Sverresson, 
during his visit to Sarpsborg in 1203, had become 
enamoured of the beautiful Inga of Varteig, and it 
had also been whispered that she had reciprocated 
his love. Soon after Haakon's death, she had borne 
a son, and though it was taken for granted that the 
king was his father, the matter had been hushed up, 
lest the Baglers, who were masters in Viken, should 
hear that an heir had been born to the throne. The 
priest, Thrond, in whose house Inga gave birth to the 
boy, baptized him and gave him the name Haakon, 
after his father ; but advised the utmost secrecy, and 
let no one but his immediate family know of the 
child's existence. Such a secret is, however, hard to 
keep, and, after a while, the priest took Erlend of 
Huseby, a man of good repute and a friend of 
Sverre's house, into his confidence. Erlend rejoiced 
that King Sverre's race was not extinct ; but found 
the boy's position, in the midst of the enemies' land, 
perilous. He therefore persuaded Thrond to send 
him and his mother to King Inge, and himself offered 
to take them across the mountains. The boy Haakon 
was then (December, 1205,) about a year and a half 
old. There must have been some imminent danger 



392 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

at hand which impelled the priest, after having waited 
so long, to choose the most inclement season of the 
year for the journey across the trackless, snow-cov- 
ered wilderness. The two friends started northward 
with their precious charge and arrived, after infinite 
hardships, in Nidaros, where they were well received 
by King Inge. The boy now, for a while, sojourned 
with his mother at court and was kindly treated. 
The old Birchlegs came often to see him and play- 
fully took him between them and pulled him by the 
arms and legs in order to make him grow faster. For 
they were impatient to serve, once more, a king of 
the old royal race. Haakon Galen, too, took a great 
fancy to his young kinsman, though his demonstra- 
tions of love were, no doubt, looked upon with fear 
by those who had the boy's welfare at heart. Never- 
theless, it appears that the earl was actually sincere, 
and felt moved, perhaps, by the very helplessness of 
the boy to protect him. A kind Providence seemed 
to be watching over him ; for though living in the 
midst of the intrigues and plottings of rival chiefs, 
all of whom must have seen in him their most dan- 
gerous rival, his life was preserved, and he escaped 
unharmed from many dangers. Even the Baglers 
refrained from killing him, when in 1206 he fell into 
their hands, at the surrender of the block-house in 
Bergen. It is perhaps not safe to assume that a half- 
latent consciousness asserted itself, that in this boy 
Norway's future was bound up ; that upon him de- 
pended the country's deliverance from the scourge 
of civil war. More likely it is that his beauty and 
winning ways appealed to friends and foes alike, 



GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 393 

while on the other hand, the love of the Birchlegs 
was his best guard, because it convinced his ill- 
wishers that disaster would swiftly overwhelm any 
one who should venture to harm him. 

Of the many small victories and defeats, sieges and 
surrenders, flights and pursuits, which filled the years 
1206 and 1207, without according any decisive ad- 
vantage to either party, it is not necessary to speak 
at length. They were a series of barren futilities, 
resulting in loss of life, and waste of the resources of 
the land, without lastingly benefiting any one. Un- 
der these circumstances, it is not strange that both 
Birchlegs and Baglers began to long for a reconcilia- 
tion. Even to so bitter a partisan as Bishop Nich- 
olas, it became evident that a continuance of the war 
would mean mutual destruction, and that the prize 
of victory would be a devastated land and a barbar- 
ized people. King Inge, too, was heartily tired of 
the aimless hostilities, and even his pugnacious 
brother, Haakon Galen, was not disinclined to listen 
to proposals of peace. The new archbishop, Thore, 
acted as mediator between the parties and used his 
influence and his eloquence to extort from both the 
necessary concessions. At last, when the conditions 
were well understood on both sides, a meeting of the 
Birchleg and Bagler chiefs was held at Hvitingsoe 
(1208), at which Philip Simonsson, the king of the 
Baglers, swore allegiance to Inge, and became his 
earl. In return he received Viken and the Oplands 
in fief, and was wedded to Sverre's daughter, Chris- 
tina. 

The restoration of peace was not hailed as an un- 



394 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

mixed boon by many of those who had lost their 
property by the war, and could only hope to enrich 
themselves by the same means. Others had carried 
arms so long, as to have lost all inclination for peace- 
ful industry. A great number of these, irrespective 
of parties, started on an old-fashioned Viking expedi- 
tion to the Orkneys, Hebrides, and Man, ravaged and 
plundered, and compelled the earls of those isles, once 
more, to acknowledge the supremacy of the crown 
of Norway. In spite of this service which they had 
done to the king, ' they were severely censured on 
their return, and forced by the bishops to surrender 
their booty to the Church. 

The last years of King Inge's reign were embit- 
tered by his strained relation to Earl Haakon. The 
latter, feeling his superiority to Inge in all the qual- 
ities that grace a king, could not reconcile himself 
to his subordinate position. He began intriguing 
behind his brother's back, and privately sounded the 
sentiments of the prominent peasants and chiefs, in 
regard to his pretensions. From many he received 
a favorable answer, and the plot was in a fair way to 
succeed, when it was unexpectedly discovered by the 
king. Inge, who had had perfect confidence in his 
older brother, was more shocked than angered by 
the proof of his treachery, He summoned all his 
men to a house-///2>/^ and called upon them to stand 
by him, declaring that he would tolerate no other 
king in the land, as long as he was alive. This 
speech won general approval and compelled Haakon 
henceforth to weave his plots with greater secrecy. 
Whether he was the instigator of the attempt upon 



GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 395 

the king's life, which was made a year later, is not 
known, but that either he or his wife Christina was 
in some way implicated in it, is evident from the 
king's unwillingness to have the would-be assassin 
tried or punished. When his brother, Skule Baards- 
son, urged him to make an example of the wretch, he 
promised to have the matter investigated, to exile the 
criminal, etc., but as nothing was done, Skule lost his 
patience and killed him on his own responsibility. 

It was, on the whole, a laudable spirit on Inge's 
part which impelled him to avoid an open rupture 
with Earl Haakon, even at the cost of personal sac- 
rifice. He knew the horrors of civil war and would 
not take the responsibility of precipitating a breach 
of the peace, as long as it was in his power to pre- 
vent it. The fact that his health was poor, and that 
there was a chance that Haakon might succeed him, 
may also have disinclined him to discredit the latter 
in the eyes of the people. Among Haakon's partisans 
was Archbishop Thore, to whose intervention it was 
chiefly due that the king and the earl in 12 12 made 
a compact, in accordance with which illegitimate 
children were to be excluded from the succession, 
and the one of the brothers who survived the other 
should inherit the throne. This agreement, which 
was proclaimed at OtYQ-t/mtg, and sanctioned by the 
bishops and the magnates of the land, was chiefly 
aimed against the young prince, Haakon Haakons- 
son, who, though a direct descendant in the male 
line of the old royal house, was of illegitimate birth. 
It excluded also, for the same reason, Inge's son 
Guttorm, and transferred the succession to Haakon 



39^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Galen and his legitimate son, Knut. But in making 
this compact, they underestimated the strength of the 
sentiment which bound Sverre's veterans to the boy 
Haakon. One of them, Helge Hvasse, who was in 
the habit of going frequently to see the prince, and 
playing with him, grew very wroth when he heard 
of the agreement. When Haakon ran up to him to 
have his usual romp, he pushed him roughly away 
and bade him begone. The boy, unaccustomed to 
such treatment, looked reproachfully at him, and 
asked why he was angry. 

" Begone," cried Helge ; '' to-day thy paternal her- 
itage was taken from thee, and I don't care for thee 
any more." 

^' Where was that done, and who did it ? " asked 
Haakon. 

'' It was done at O^VQ-thing, and they who did it 
were the two brothers. King Inge and Earl Haakon." 

" Do not be angry with me, mine own Helge," 
said the boy ; " and be not troubled about this ; their 
judgment cannot be valid, as my guardian was not 
present to answer in my behalf." 

" Who, then, is thy guardian ?" inquired Helge. 

*' My guardians are God, and the Holy Virgin, and 
St. Olaf," exclaimed Haakon solemnly; "into their 
keeping I have given my cause, and they will guard 
my interests, both in the division of the country and 
in all my welfare." 

Much moved, the veteran seized the boy in his 
arms and kissed him. 

"Thanks for those words, my prince," he said; 
" such words are better spoken than unspoken." 



39^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

When this occurrence was reported to Christina, 
she scolded Haakon, and henceforth treated him 
harshly. But she dared not show her evil disposi- 
tion toward him in the presence of her husband. For 
the earl, though he had no scruples in barring the 
boy's way to the throne, was yet attached to him, 
and would not allow him to come to harm. Haakon's 
remarkable precocity amused him, a.s it did all his 
men. Several anecdotes are preserved of his droll 
sayings and doings. Thus, when once the weather 
was so cold that the bread could not be buttered, 
the little prince took a piece of bread and bent it 
around the butter, saying : " Let us tie the butter to 
the bread, Birchlegs." 

This saying became a proverb in the camp of the 
Birchlegs. 

The king's indulgence to his brother in the matter 
of the succession had not quieted but rather stimu- 
lated the latter's ambition. By incessant intriguing 
he succeeded in fomenting a peasant's rebellion in 
Trondelag which was, however, quelled without 
serious loss of life. Soon after this exploit, he was 
taken ill and died in Bergen 12 14, aged thirty-eight 
years. His wife, who knew that the Birchlegs had 
a long score to settle with her, made haste to quit 
the country with her son. Haakon Haakonsson, who 
had been fostered in the earl's house, was now trans- 
ferred to the court, where he was treated as became 
his rank. There the Birchlegs flocked again about 
him, watching jealously every one who approached 
him. They were in many ways discontented with 
King Inge, whom they held to be an aristocrat, and 



GUTTORM SIGURDSSON.—INGE BAARDSSON. 399 

by his poor health and peaceful disposition unfitted 
for the chieftainship. Besides, his brother Skule was 
openly intriguing to push Haakon aside and place 
himself in the line of succession. The disaffection 
then became so great that a number of Birchlegs 
under the leadership of Andres Skjaldarband en- 
deavored to persuade Haakon to place himself at the 
head of a rebellion. But Haakon refused to give ear 
to such counsel. 

As the king's health declined and he perceived that 
his death was approaching, he loved to have the boy 
about him and to listen to his droll and vivacious 
talk. All public business passed, during this time, 
through the hands of Skule Baardsson, whom Inge 
made his earl, and the guardian of his son. The king 
died in April, 1217, being but thirty years old. 




CHAPTER XXVII. > 

HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD (l 2 1 /-1 263). 

The first act of the Birchlegs, after the death of 
King Inge, was to give Haakon a body-guard, which 
was to follow him night and day. Earl Skule, on 
his side, opened a campaign of intriguing and chican- 
ery, in which he was faithfully supported by the new 
archbishop, Guttorm, and the canons of the cathe- 
dral chapter in Nidaros. In spite of all their under- 
hand measures, however, Haakon was proclaimed 
king at O^r^-tJiing by the Birchlegs, and Skule, who 
did not feel himself strong enough to defy the gen- 
eral sentiment, had to acquiesce in what he could not 
prevent. It was of no avail that the canons of the 
chapter locked up the shrine of St. Olaf upon which 
the king was to swear to keep the laws ; the Birchlegs 
determined to dispense with the shrine rather than to 
dispense with their king. Nor did the negotiations 
of the earl with Philip, the so-called king of the Bag- 
lers, lead to anything; for Philip died shortly after 
King Inge, leaving no children; and Haakon sailed 
southward with a large fleet and took possession of 
Viken and the Oplands, which since the treaty of 
Hviting-soe in 1208 had been under the dominion 
of the Baglers. By a wise policy of conciliation he 

400 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 4OI 

induced the chiefs of the rebels to acknowledge his 
overlordship, on condition of their being permitted 
to keep one half of the fiefs which had been granted 
to Philip. The following year, they also consented 
to give up their old party name, which recalled the 
times of civil dissension and strife, and to fight side 
by side with the Birchlegs, against a new band of 
rebels, called the Slittungs (Ragamufifins), which had 
been organized under the leadership of a priest, 
named Benedikt or Bene Skindkniv (Skin-knife). 
This arrant impostor professed, like so many of his 
predecessors, to be the son of King Magnus Erlings- 
son, and in spite of the utter improbability of his 
story, upwards of a thousand men soon gathered 
about him and began robbing and plundering. It was 
merely to furnish an excuse for a breach of the peace 
that they professed belief in Bene's pretensions. 
Robbers, footpads, and all sorts of nomadic vaga- 
t)onds could, in those days, give themselves a sem- 
blance of respectability by providing themselves with 
a candidate for the throne. A great many credulous 
people could then be induced to join them and their 
depredations were called war instead of robbery. 

A war, and especially a civil war, always drags in 
its wake a long train of disastrous consequences. 
The longer it lasts, the more difficult is the return to 
peace. The miserable internecine strife which had 
lasted, with brief interruptions, since Harold Gille's 
ascension of the throne (1130), had weaned a whole 
generation from the pursuits of peace, accustoming 
it to scenes of bloodshed and violence. It had 
added to the natural risks of industrial occupations, 



402 . THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

and made rebellion, as it were, a legitimate profes- 
sion. The thousands of homeless vagabonds who 
infest every imperfectly organized society, and the 
numerous class who, by nature, are criminally inclined, 
will always seize such an opportunity to support 
themselves, at the expense of society, and will far 
rather endure the dangers and hardships of a per- 
petual war than the wearing routine and sustained 
activities of peace. The material was therefore at 
hand for continued rebellion, and as long as the 
supply of pretenders showed no signs of giving out, 
there was every prospect that the king would have 
his hands full. Only the gradual destruction of the 
turbulent and the greater chances of the survival of 
the friends of order would, in the end, decide the 
struggle in favor of the latter. The problem is, how- 
ever, more complicated than it appears to be, for the 
gradual destruction of the turbulent came, in the 
course of time, to mean the destruction of the war? 
like spirit itself. And a century after peace had 
been concluded, a period of decline set in, which 
continued for four hundred years. 

A greater danger than the rebellion of the Slit- 
tungs was, however, threatening King Haakon from 
one who called himself his friend. The role of in- 
triguer and mischief-maker, which during King Inge's 
reign had been filled by Haakon Galen, appeared to 
have devolved with his other dignities upon his 
brother. Earl Skule. To see royal honor bestowed 
upon a fourteen-year-old boy, who had done nothing 
to merit it, galled his proud soul. Like Haakon 
Galen, he had long stood so near to the throne, that 




WEST FRONT OF DRONTHEIM CATHEDRAL. 



404 THE STOR V OF NOR WA Y. 

he could not comprehend, why it should always re- 
main beyond his reach. After the brief campaign 
against the Slittungs, he began again his machina- 
tions, aided as usual by the archbishop and the clergy, 
who seemed yet to cherish their ancient grudge 
against Sverre's house. When Haakon arrived in 
Nidaros, two weeks before Easter (121 8), the arch- 
bishop treated him with studious discourtesy, while 
he did every thing in his power to distinguish the 
earl. When the king on Palm Sunday went up to 
place his offering upon the altar, the prelate did not 
even turn toward him, or in any way appear to be 
conscious of his presence. When taken to task for 
his incivility, he replied boldly that he was acting 
deliberately on the advice of all the bishops and 
many chieftains, who, like himself, had doubts as to 
whether the king was the son of Haakon Sverresson. 
Haakon, young as he was, saw at once the plot that 
was here concealed. But so great was his confidence 
in the justice of his cause, that he consented to have 
his mother bear glowing irons, to prove his origin. 
Inga had before offered to submit to this ordeal, but 
had been prevented by the archbishop, who for some 
reason did not then desire to pronounce upon her 
son's claim, possibly because he had not yet arranged 
his terms with Skule. It was of course unheard of, 
that a king, actually in possession of the realm, should 
be put to the humiliation of proving who he was; 
and his friend Dagfinn Peasant expressed the general 
sentiment when he said : ^' It will be hard to show 
another instance of such a case ; that the sons of 
peasants and cottagers have ventured to prescribe 



HAAKON' HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 405 

such humiliating terms to an absolute king. * * * 
I think it were just as well to bear another kind of 
iron, viz., cold steel, against the king's foes, and then 
let God judge between them." 

As Earl Skule's plot seemed now in a fair way to 
succeed, he became suddenly affable and affectionate 
toward the king. He felt positive that his clerical 
friends would manage to have the ordeal result in 
accordance with his wishes. Nevertheless, to make 
assurance doubly sure, he bribed a foreigner in his 
service, named Sigar of Brabant, to approach the 
king's mother, and offer her an herb which, he as- 
serted, had the power to heal burns ; but a guard of 
devoted Birchlegs, among whom was Dagfinn Peas- 
ant, surrounded the church in which she was fast- 
ing, preparatory to the ordeal, and the earl's emissary 
was, therefore, compelled to confide his errand to 
the latter. Dagfinn replied : "■ No art or healing 
will we employ here, except such as Christ in his 
mercy will grant. Begone with thy twaddle, or dis- 
aster will overtake thee, if thou darest again utter 
such speech." 

Inga was then warned of the plot and told to be 
on her guard. For if it could be proved that she 
had used healing herbs, the test would be invalid, and 
opprobrium would have overwhelmed both her and 
her son. All the machinations of her enemies, how- 
ever, came to naught ; she endured the ordeal trium- 
phantly. It is difficult to explain how this result came 
about, for the odds were certainly against her. The 
earl had, perhaps, from over-confidence, neglected 
some link in his long chain of precautions. However 



406 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

that may be, he had, after this severe check, to start 
all over again — to spin, with painstaking care, a fresh 
web of intrigue, in order slowly to undermine the 
king's power. His plan seems to have been to 
alienate Haakon's trustiest friends from him, or to 
get them removed to such a distance that they could 
no longer be of any help to him ; then to set them 
by the ears mutually, so that one slew the other and 
the king punished the survivor. But ingenious as 
this plot was, it was not entirely successful. The 
king's forgiving disposition, and a suspicion, on his 
part, that the earl was really at the bottom of these 
mysterious enmities and slayings, impelled him to act 
contrary to the latter's expectation. It was obvious 
to all that he bought the earl's pretended friendship 
at too high a price, and many of his men would have 
preferred open warfare to this suppressed suspicion 
and hypocritical good-will. There was, indeed, ample 
opportunity for strife between the two parties, and 
quarrels and bloody fights between the " earl's- 
men " and the " king's-men " were of frequent 
occurrence. All the conditions for another civil war 
war were, in fact, at hand, and it was only the disin- 
clination of the king to let loose, once more, the dogs 
of war, which preserved even the semblance of 
peace. The fact that the king was under the guar- 
dianship of a man who spent his tirne in plotting 
against him, seemed to the Bircheleg chiefs to call 
for precautions, on their part ; and the idea occurred 
to them to convert Skule's hostility into friend- 
ship, by identifying his interests with those of the 
king. For this purpose they proposed a marriage 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 407 

between Haakon and the earl's ten-year-old daugh- 
ter, Margaret. The king, though he was not eager 
for such a marriage, yielded to the representations 
of his counsellors, and Skule, after some hesitation, 
consented to have the betrothal take place (12 19). 
The actual marriage was preliminarily postponed, on 
account of the tender age of the bride. But those 
who had supposed that Skule could be made to aban- 
don his scheming, because the king was his son-in- 
law, had made a miscalculation. Circumstances, 
however, compelled him, soon after the betrothal, 
to fight in defence of the crown, against a new band 
of rebels, called the Ribbungs, who had absorbed 
their predecessors, the Slittungs, and added largely 
to their number. This band owed its origin to the 
former Bagler chief, Gudolf of Blakkestad, who had 
been appointed a prefect by Haakon, but had later 
been deprived of his office, on account of his un- 
popularity with the peasants. To avenge himself, 
he raised the banner of rebellion, and provided him- 
self with a candidate for the throne in the person of 
Sigurd, an alleged son of the Bagler king, Erling 
Stonewall. All those who had a real or an imagined 
cause for discontent, and many who were merely 
intent upon plunder, now rushed together under the 
standard of the Ribbungs. These made considerable 
progress in Viken, defeated and chased away the 
royal prefects, and gained much booty. They were 
secretly supported by that hoary mischief-maker, 
Bishop Nicholas, who, in spite of his professions of 
friendship, yet remained consistent in his hatred of 
Sverre's race. The earl, too, who was sent to de- 



408 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

stroy the rebels, was less energetic than he might 
have been, giving himself an appearance of zeal in 
his master's behalf, but being really disinclined to 
strike an effective blow. It was, rather, in his inter- 
est to keep them in the field, for the purpose of 
injuring the king and preventing him from growing 
too powerful. In the various fights which he had 
with the Ribbungs in Viken (1221), he did, indeed, 
inflict considerable injury upon them, and in the 
battle of Svang, at Lake Mjosen (1222), killed one 
hundred and fifty of their number. But imme- 
diately afterward he made peace with Sigurd Rib- 
bung, who had the impudence to demand one third 
of the kingdom and the earl's daughter for his wife. 
Skule replied that neither had he brought up his 
daughter to live in the woods, nor was he minded to 
give up any part of his fiefs. But if the king was in- 
clined to consider Sigurd's proposition, the earl 
promised to use whatever influence he had with his 
son-in-law in his behalf. On these conditions the 
rebel chief dismissed his band, and, on the promise 
of safe-conduct, betook himself to the earl's camp 
where he was treated with great distinction. The 
moment for pushing his claim was, however, not a 
favorable one, as the relation between the king and 
the earl, at this time, took a sudden turn for the 
worse. It appeared that Skule had levied troops 
and contributions, outside of his own fief, accord- 
ingly in the king's domain, and Haakon was so 
incensed at this fresh infringement of his rights that 
he wrote him a letter, in which he threatened him 
with war, in case he persevered in disregarding their 




\ .^ x^ 







Sflbi^^'^"^ 



4IO THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

agreement. The earl replied to this letter by im- 
mediately setting sail for Denmark. He had evi- 
dently taken a great resolution. What this resolu- 
tion was is easy to guess. 

The kings of Denmark had, since the days of Harold 
Bluetooth, claimed overlordship over Viken, and they 
had repeatedly fomented rebellion in Norway for 
the purpose of regaining the lost province. Skule's 
intention was now to thrust Haakon from the throne 
by the aid of Valdemar the Victorious, and to 
take the entire country in fief from him. But to his 
unutterable astonishment, when he arrived in Den- 
mark, Valdemar was nowhere to be found. He had 
been captured, five days before, by Count Henrik 
of Schwerin, and was now languishing with his son 
in a prison in Mecklenburg. Bitterly disappointed, 
Skule returned home, and was compelled to resume 
his mask of benevolent interest in his son-in-law's 
affairs. The latter had just filled his eighteenth 
year, which, in the case of princes, was regarded as 
the age of majority. He needed, therefore, no long- 
er a guardian, and custom seemed to demand some 
ceremony on his formal assumption of the govern- 
ment. An assembly of notables was therefore sum- 
moned to meet in Bergen (1223), where Archbishop 
Guttorm, who, in the meanwhile, by concessions, had 
been bribed to take the king's side, solemnly re- 
affirmed his right to the throne. Sigurd Ribbung's 
claim was pronounced invalid, as was also that of 
Squire Knut, the son of Haakon Galen and Christina, 
who had sent representatives to the meeting. Earl 
Skule saw from the beginning that the sentiment of 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 4II 

the assembly was so bverwhelmingly in Haakon's 
favor, that it would be of no use for him to urge his 
pretensions. He therefore contented himself with 
extorting as favorable terms for himself as possible 
at the renewal of his compact with the king. After 
many negotiations he exchanged his southern fief for 
the northern third of the country, extending from the 
North Cape to the southern boundary at Sondmore. 
But he still remained, in name at least, a royal vassal, 
and was compelled to swear allegiance to the king ; 
although he enjoyed all the royal revenues from his 
fiefs, and paid no tax or tribute to any one. 

In accordance with this agreement Haakon now 
moved southward and took up his residence in Oslo. 
This city, which had recently been burned down, he 
rebuilt with great care, and came thereby into fre- 
quent contact with the ancient enemy of his race, 
Bishop Nicholas. This venerable scoundrel suc- 
ceeded actually in gaining his confidence for a 
time, and obtained during this brief friendship sub- 
stantial advantages for himself and his see. Haakon 
always took pleasure in showing his zeal for religion 
by liberality toward the Church, and the wily bishop 
was the man to take advantage of such a dispo- 
sition. He persuaded him on the death of Archbish- 
op Guttorm (1223) to give the weight of his recom- 
mendation to his enemy, Peter of Husastad, who, in 
accordance with the advice of Nicholas, feigned 
friendship, until he had got the mitre securely on 
his head. 

It was not in accordance with the earl's plans to 
let the king sit quietly in Viken, increasing his popu- 



412 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

larity and power. He was therefore scarcely grieved, 
when he heard of Sigurd Ribbung's flight ; nay, it is 
even probable, that he gave the rebel chief the oppor- 
tunity to escape, if he did not actually persuade him 
to renew the rebellion. The Ribbungs, who were not 
loath to resume their former activity, gathered again 
in large numbers about their leader, and began plun- 
dering and killing the king's adherents as of old. 
Whenever they were pursued, they made their es- 
cape across the frontier into the Swedish province, 
Vermeland, only to return as soon as their pursuers 
had turned their backs on them. King Haakon 
wrote repeatedly to the Swedish king, or rather to 
his guardians, as he was himself a child, complaining 
of the protection which Sweden afforded his ene- 
mies. Prominent among the counsellors of King Erik 
was then Eskil Lawman, who had married Chris- 
tina, the widow of Haakon Galen. This unscru- 
pulous woman, who had hated Haakon from his 
childhood, now exerted her influence against him at 
the Swedish court ; the consequence was that the 
counsellors disregarded his remonstrance, and con- 
tinued to give the Ribbungs an asylum. Their au- 
dacity naturally grew, in proportion as they became 
conscious of this protection ; and Haakon was at last 
compelled to invade Vermeland with an army of 
2,400 men, in the middle of winter (1225). He burned 
many farms, and ravaged several parishes, but had no 
chance to fight any decisive battle, either with the 
Ribbungs or the Swedes. The latter had fled to the 
woods, and the former had availed themselves of the 
king's visit to Sweden to make a foray into Vest- 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 413 

fold, and attack Tunsberg. The former Bagler chief, 
Arnbjorn Jonsson, who was close on their heels with 
his troops, was detained in Oslo by Bishop Nicholas, 
who by his double dealing succeeded in insuring the 
escape of the rebels. 

In April, 1225, the king, in the midst of his pro- 
tracted campaign against the Ribbungs, celebrated 
his wedding in Bergen with his betrothed, Earl 
Skule's daughter. The bride was then about 
seventeen years old, the groom twenty. If It was 
Skule's intention, when he gave his consent to the 
marriage, to secure himself an ally at court, he was 
disappointed. For Margaret, from the moment she 
became queen, made common cause with her hus- 
band, and in no wise favored her father's schemes. 
She was a gentle and affectionate wife and a good 
mother. 

The Ribbungs in the meanwhile continued their 
guerilla warfare, having taken possession of the 
Helgeo, an island in Lake Mjosen, whence they 
made forays into the fertile parishes that border 
on the lake, and practically controlled the Oplands. 
Earl Skule, who was again sent out to quell the re- 
bellion, dawdled as usual, nursing his secret treason 
and being at heart more anxious to injure the king 
than his enemies. In order to destroy the Ribbungs, 
it was necessary to reach the island, and ostensibly 
for this purpose he began to build ships on the 
shores of the lake. He built them, however, delib- 
erately in such a fashion that they leaked, and could 
scarcely be kept afloat. The Ribbungs, instead of 
being frightened by his preparations, grew daily 



414 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

bolder, and sent messengers to the king in Oslo, pro- 
posing to give him battle. Haakon accepted the 
offer, and advanced with his army to the appointed 
place of meeting (Eidsvold), while the earl, instead 
of hastening to meet him, took the road across the 
mountains to Nidaros, after having burned his worth- 
less ships. Here was the most incontrovertible 
proof of treason ; and there are also indications that 
in a correspondence between Bishop Nicholas and 
the Ribbungs which had fallen into the king's hands, 
the earl was seriously compromised. Nevertheless, 
Haakon chose to feign blindness rather than call the 
traitor to account. Possibly he did not feel himself 
strong enough to fight Skule and the Ribbungs at 
the same time, preferring to get rid of one enemy 
before engaging the other. 

After having waited in vain for the Ribbungs at 
Eidsvold, Haakon returned with his army to Oslo, 
where he learned that Bishop Nicholas was lying 
upon his death-bed. The old prelate, with whom 
falsity and double-dealing had become a second 
nature, seemed yet to feel some anxiety as to his 
fate in the hereafter. He therefore summoned the 
king to his bedside, made him a full confession (not, 
however, until the king had shown him the evidence 
of his treason), and implored his forgiveness, which 
was readily granted. The bishop died in November, 
1225, seventy-five years old, having spent his long 
life in fomenting rebellion, and in ravaging and de- 
stroying his native land. His great talents proved a 
curse both to himself and his people. Not long after 
his demise, Sigurd Ribbung died (1226), and Haakon 




ON THE SOGNE FJORD. 



4l6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Galen's son, Squire Knut, was induced by his guileful 
mother to take his place. He brought with him a 
large band of Swedes, thereby giving his warfare the 
appearance of a foreign invasion, and arousing the 
hostility of the peasantry of the Oplands, who had 
formerly been friendly to the Ribbungs. In a fight 
at Aker he was defeated by a united army of Birch- 
legs and peasants, and during the following months 
he suffered repeated disasters, and was deserted by 
many of his best men. After a dastardly attempt to 
capture the king by inviting him to a conference, 
under promise of safety, — an attempt' which failed 
by the merest chance, — Squire Knut dismissed his 
band (1227), submitted to Haakon, who not only 
forgave him, but for his father's sake gave him fiefs, 
and treated him with distinction. The young man, 
as soon as he was removed from his mother's influ- 
ence, gave up all thought of rebellion, married, some 
years later, a younger daughter of Earl Skule, and 
became one of the king's most devoted friends. 

As the Ribbungs were now out of the way and 
could no longer be made to serve his purposes, the 
earl hatched a new plot which, on account of its in- 
genuity, ran less risk of premature detection. He 
professed a desire to take the cross, and began war- 
like preparations on a grand scale. He obtained 
from the Pope permission to exact one twentieth of 
all the ecclesiastical revenues of the province of 
Nidaros in aid of his enterprise, and satisfied his con- 
science by endowing the Church, in return, with his 
great family estate. Rein, which was converted into 
a nunnery. Extreme caution was characteristic of 



HAAKON HAAKONSSOISr THE OLD. 417 

Skule ; and he meant, this time, to leave nothing to 
chance. He began at once to build ships, and to 
gather warriors about him from all parts of the coun- 
try. As the Danish king, Valdemar the Victorious, 
had now regained his liberty, he could also count 
upon his aid, and a formal agreement was made be- 
tween them in accordance with which Skule should 
assist the king in recovering his lost provinces. In 
return for this service Valdemar promised to put 
Skule on the throne of Norway. That some such 
agreement must have existed is obvious from the 
fact that the earl actually set sail for Denmark (1227), 
without asking Haakon's permission, but was met on 
his way by the latter and informed of the disastrous 
defeat of his ally at Bornhoved. He then concluded 
to await developments ; as he would run too great a 
risk in visiting Denmark, while Valdemar's enemies 
had the upper hand. Putting on a bold face, he 
joined his fleet to that of his son-in-law and returned 
to Bergen. The king, although he did not deceive 
himself as to Skule's purposes, kept his counsel and 
feigned ignorance. Nay, he even carried his gener- 
osity so far as to lend the traitor ships and provisions 
when, the following year, (1228) he set out once more 
to visit the king of Denmark. Since his defeat at 
Bornhoved, Valdemar was indeed much less formid- 
able than before his captivity, and the warlike spirit 
had wellnigh left him. Haakon may therefore have 
suspected that, surrounded as he was with enemies, 
both on the south and the west, he would scarcely 
care to add another on the north. Moreover, Haakon 
had by this time secured the friendship of the Ger- 



4l8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

man emperor, Frederick II., who was a bitter enemy 
of Denmark, and be might, therefore, have a chance 
to keep Valdemar in check, in case he should lend a 
favorable ear to the earl's persuasions. Under these 
circumstances he hardly exposed himself to any risk, 
nay hoped, perhaps, by facilitating his father-in-law's 
approach to the Danish king, to convince him of the 
futility of all his plottings. If that was his intention, 
he must have been disappointed in the result. For 
when Skule returned he had added to his power for 
mischief, by obtaining the northern half of the Dan- 
ish province of Halland in fief, thereby becoming the 
vassal of a foreign prince, who, moreover, was the 
enemy of his own king. 

One would have supposed that he was now ready 
for a decisive blow. But he hesitated again, and 
seemed half inclined to retrace his steps. There was 
always something lacking in the completeness of his 
preparations, and another delay was always necessary. 
He is, indeed, an interesting figure, this wily and am- 
bitious intriguer, who has the courage to plot treason, 
nay takes pleasure in perfecting all the details of his 
plot, but always pauses before taking the irretriev- 
able step. Like Schiller's Wallenstein, he fondles the 
thought, plays with it, utters it cautiously and hypo- 
thetically, but leaves himself always, as he supposes, 
a path of retreat, until his own acts spin a web about 
him and bar him the road back to safety. Year by 
year he compromises himself more irretrievably ; his 
treasonable letters fall into the hands of the king, and 
when, after twenty-two years of covert treason, he 
drifts into open rebellion, it is because there is appar- 
ently no other alternative left to him. 



420 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

In the meanwhile, the king left no means untried 
to keep the earl to his allegiance. In 1233 he sum- 
moned him to an assembly of notables in Bergen 
{Rigsmode), at which the archbishop, the bishops, 
and a great number of secular dignitaries were pres- 
ent. The king here called his father-in-law formally 
to account for his actions, and the liegemen rose, one 
after the other, and cited proofs of the earl's dis- 
loyalty. When the turn came to Skule to defend 
himself, he began in this wise : 

^' I know a ditty : ' The eagle sat on a stone,' and I 
also know another which runs like this : ' The eagle 
sat on a stone,' and a lot more which all run the same 
way. Thus it is here to-day. Every one talks in his 
own way, but they all finish up with the same ditty, 
viz. : to bring accusations against me." 

He made a long and eloquent speech, and, as it is 
said, defended himself with great adroitness. It is 
doubtful, however, if anybody believed him, and it 
was only the king's reluctance to resort to the sword, 
which saved him, on this as on many previous occa- 
sions. A new agreement was drawn up which was 
no more effective in restraining the earl's treasonable 
scheming than the previous ones had been. On the 
contrary, he was no sooner left to his own devices 
than he resumed his activity for the overthrow of 
the king. His purpose this time was to involve 
Haakon in a quarrel with the Church, in order after- 
ward to crush him with the formidable weapons 
which the Church had at its command. He shrewdly 
provided himself with a cat's paw in the person of 
Bishop Paul of Hamar, who was his devoted adhe- 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 421 

rent. The archbishop, at this time, Sigurd Tavse, 
was a partisan of the king, but zealous for the wel- 
fare of the Church, and therefore, as Skule reasoned, 
capable of being alienated by a controversy in which 
the interests of the Church and those of the king 
were in conflict. Bishop Paul accordingly produced 
a document, alleged to have been issued by the Bagler 
king, Inge, in 1226, in which the Helgeo in Mjosen, 
which was the property of the crown, was presented 
to the episcopal see of Hamar. The king naturally 
contested the validity of this document, as Inge, a 
rebel chief, had no right to give away the property 
of the crown which had never been his. An appeal 
was now made to the Pope, Gregory IX., and a cam- 
paign of intrigue and mendacity was begun. The 
excellent and honorable Haakon was systematically 
reviled and slandered, until the Pope came to believe 
that he was a villain of the deepest dye. Bishop 
Paul, virtually as the ambassador of the earl, though 
nominally in the interest of the Church, betook him- 
self to Rome, where he succeeded in prejudicing 
Gregory IX. against all the king's adherents, and 
even against his own superior, the archbishop. 
Skule, on the other hand, was represented in the 
most flattering light, as the munificent friend of the 
Church, and its defender against the encroachments 
of the unscrupulous king. The object was to pro- 
cure a ban-bull against Haakon. 

The plot was spoiled, however, by being prema- 
turely revealed. An Icelander, named Sturla Sig- 
hvatsson, a nephew and an active enemy of the 
historian Snorre Sturlasson, met Bishop Paul in 



422 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Rome and started homeward in his company. 
Whether he gained the confidence of his travelling 
companion, or otherwise obtained an insight into his 
intrigues at the Roman Curia, is not known. At all 
events, he immediately sought the king, on his arrival 
in Norway, and acquainted him with the doings of 
his enemies. The king summoned the earl once 
more to meet him in Bergen ; but this time Skule's 
courage failed him. Instead of going to Bergen, he 
went with his army to Nidaros, and thence across the 
mountains to the Oplands, which was the king's ter- 
ritory. This was about equivalent to a declaration 
of war, but as usual, he took only half measures, 
hesitated, talked threateningly, but refrained from 
actual hostilities. At the intercession of Archbishop 
Sigurd, he was induced to promise to keep the peace 
during the winter (1235-6) on condition of receiving 
one third of the royal prefectures {Sysler) in the 
Oplands and Viken. It seems to indicate weakness 
on Haakon's part that he was willing to make such 
concessions ; and his readiness to yield had naturally 
the effect of encouraging the earl's adherents and 
making them screw their demands still higher. 
During the following year (1237) a new agreement 
was made, in accordance with which Skule was con- 
firmed in the possession of his territory in the south, 
and was raised to the rank of duke — a rank which 
had never before been conferred upon any man in 
Norway. There was but one title, however, which 
could satisfy Skule's ambition, and as long as Haakon 
refused to grant that, he felt himself justified in con- 
tinuing his agitation. With increasing recklessness 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 423 

he defied the king's will, gathered great numbers of 
warriors about him, built ships, and conducted him- 
self in every way as an independent ruler. It became 
the fashion at his court to ridicule the king as a 
cowardly busybody who only talked, but lacked the 
heart to strike. The Varbelgs "'^ — thus the partisans 
of the duke were called — invented for him the nick- 
name, Haakon Sleepy. His reluctance to assume the 
responsibility for civil war, they mistook for fear, and 
his conscientiousness for pusillanimity. 

When the spirit of rebellion which the duke had 
bred in his surroundings had thrown away all re- 
straint, it began to react upon himself, spurring him on 
to deed, and counteracting his natural indecision of 
character. He was now nearly fifty years old, and if 
he ever were to gain the crown, there was no time to 
be lost. Accordingly he mustered courage in 1239 
to summon the Tronders to OcvQ-thing, and to pro- 
claim himself king of all Norway. When the canons 
of the cathedral refused to permit the shrine of St. 
Olaf to be used for the ceremony, Skule's son, Peter,f 
jumped up on the altar, pulled the cofhn up, and had 
it removed, by force, to the thing. In order that 
Haakon should gain no intelligence of what had 
taken place, all the roads which led out of the city 
were guarded, but for all that, one man, named Grim 
Keikan, managed to make his escape and to warn 
the king of the threatening danger. It was in the 
middle of the nip;ht that the king; received this mes- 

* The same name had been borne by another band of rebels 
which, under the boy Vikar, had fought against King Sverre. 

f Peter was an illegitimate child. His mother was the wife of 
Andres Skjaldarband, 



424 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

sage, and he went instantly to the queen's rooms and 
demanded admittance. The queen, aroused from 
her sleep, asked anxiously what news he brought. 

" Only this trifle," he said, '' that there are now 
two kings in Norway." 

'' Only one is the right king," she answered 
gravely, '' and that one are you." 

It had been Skule's first plan to surprise Haakon 
in Bergen, and capture him. But he soon learned 
that the king had heard of his exploits, and was pre- 
pared to receive him. He then sent out bands of 
warriors to different parts of the country to kill the 
royal prefects and all prominent friends of the king. 
A great many excellent men, who were utterly un- 
prepared for hostilities, were thus foully murdered ; 
churches were violated, and many atrocities com- 
mitted. The duke, in the meanwhile, remained 
quietly in Nidaros where he occupied himself in 
writing letters to foreign princes and potentates, in- 
forming them of the step he had taken, and en- 
deavoring to stir up dififlculties for Haakon by un- 
scrupulous misrepresentations. When, however, he 
learned that the king was coming with a large force 
to attack him, he started (Feb., 1240) with six 
hundred men across the mountains to the Oplands. 
Here he was met by his son-in-law. Squire Knut, 
who had been appointed earl in his place, and de- 
feated him and the able commander, Arnbjorn 
Jonsson, at Laaka. It was now high time for the 
king to appear upon the scene, if he were to prevent 
the rebellion from assuming such proportion, as to be 
beyond his power to quell it. The danger suddenly 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 425 

developed in him a decision and promptness of 
action, which went far to raise the sinking courage 
of his men. He dechned the archbishop's offer to 
open negotiations once more; arrived, after a voyage 
of unprecedented rapidity, in Viken, and rowed, 
under cover of a fog, up the Folden Fjord to Oslo. 
In view of the possibility of his death, he had made 
all preparations for the succession, but he was re- 
solved to sell his life dearly. The Varbelgs, who 
had not the faintest suspicion that he was near, were 
sleeping soundly after a night's carouse, when 
suddenly the war-horn resounded, and the storm-bell 
rang. The prows of the royal fleet were then seen 
emerging from the fog and making for the piers. 
The duke, as soon as the alarm was given, tumbled 
out of bed and flung on his clothes. The dawn 
was just reddening in the east, and the fog was lift- 
ing. The ships were now at the piers, and the 
troops were disembarking. The Varbelgs supposed, 
at first, that it was Earl Knut, who had come to re- 
venge his defeat at Laaka. But they were soon un- 
deceived. When they caught sight of the royal 
banner they knew that King Haakon was not far 
away. Strangely enough, though they saw him 
storming forward, every moment exposing himself 
to danger, nay, even rushing on ahead of his men, 
they were not eager to kill him. They feared that 
the duke's cause was lost, and though they fought 
bravely, they had no hope of victory. The duke 
fled and was pursued by the Birchlegs ; but they did 
not succeed in overtaking him. Many men fell in 
that fight, but many more sought refuge in the 
churches and were pardoned. 



426 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

It was, indeed, the duke himself, as we have seen, 
who was the originator as well as the leader of the 
rebellion. He was not the expression and embodi- 
ment of a disloyal feeling among the people, as many 
previous pretenders had been, but the rebellion was 
solely due to his own personal ambition. As long 
as he was alive, therefore, the brands of civil war 
might at any moment be rekindled. It was this re- 
flection which prompted the king, in this instance, to 
smother all natural feeling for his father-in-law and 
not to shrink from punishing him as he had deserved. 
Seven days after the battle of Oslo he sent fifteen 
well-manned ships to Nidaros, whither the duke had 
fled, under the command of Aasulf of Austraat, a 
resolute man and one of Skule's bitterest enemies. 

On his arrival in Nidaros, Skule fled to the woods, 
roaming about for two days and nights with a few 
friends who would not desert him. At last the 
friars of the monastery of Elgeseter took pity on 
him, provided him and his followers with cowls, and 
hid them in a tower. The tidings soon reached 
Aasulf that some strange-looking monks had been 
seen to enter the cloister, and he immediately set 
out with his men and demanded their surrender. 
When the friars refused, some of the Birchlegs set 
fire to the monastery. Others endeavored to put 
out the fire, but their efforts were futile. The smoke 
and the heat now compelled the duke and his com- 
panions to descend from the tower. As he stepped 
out of the gate he held his shield above his head, 
saying: '^ Hew me not in the face ; for it is not meet 
thus to treat chieftains." 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. \2J 

Instantly the Birchlegs fell upon him and slew 
him (1240). 

The death of Skule ended the rebellion. There 
was now no man in Norway who was strong enough 
to contest the power of the king ; probably no one 
who had the desire. It is a remarkable fact, consid- 
ering the duration of the civil war, since the death 
of Sigurd the Crusader, that the country apparently 
recovered so soon from its effects. The period of 
stagnation and decline did not occur until nearly a 
century later, and may then have been in part at- 
tributable to other and more immediate causes. The 
seed, however, of destruction had been sown during 
this disastrous epoch, even though it required a cen- 
tury to sprout. 

The return of peace left the king free to further 
an ambition which he had long had at heart. In a 
half unacknowledged way, he regarded his illegiti- 
mate birth as a blot upon his 'scutcheon which he 
was anxious to have removed. For this purpose he 
desired to be crowned. He had made an effort to gain 
the Pope's consent to such a ceremony during Skule's 
lifetime, but his ever-active enemy had frustrated 
his plan. Gregory IX. was now dead, as was also 
his successor, Celestin IV,, and St. Peter's chair was 
occupied by Innocent IV., who had no prejudice 
against Haakon. The bishops, as usual, endeav- 
ored to exact fresh privileges, in return for their 
good offices in this matter, proposing that the king, 
on assuming the crown, should swear the same oath 
as Magnus Erlingsson had sworn, acknowledging 
himself the vassal of the Church, and taking the 



428 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA Y. 

crown in fief from St. Olaf. But here they were met 
by a firm refusal. 

'' If I should swear such an oath as King Magnus 
swore," Haakon replied, *' then methinks my honor 
in being crowned would be diminished, instead of 
increased. For King Magnus did not care what he 
did in order to attain that to which he had no right. 
But by God's help I shall not need to buy of you 
what God has rightly chosen me to be, after my 
father and my ancestors." 

When the Pope's consent was obtained, Cardinal 
William of Sabina was sent to Norway to set the 
crown upon the king's head. But on arriving, he, 
too, incited by the native prelates, was disposed to 
exact conditions. Haakon, however, secure in his 
right, maintained his attitude with firmness and dig- 
nity, and in the end the cardinal had to accept his 
terms. The coronation took place with great pomp 
on St. Olaf's Day, July 29, 1247, in Christ's Church 
in Bergen. The guests at the banquet which fol- 
lowed the ceremony were so numerous that the 
royal mansion could not hold them, and it became 
necessary to fit out a huge boat-house as a temporary 
banqueting hall. The feast continued for three days, 
and outdid in magnificence any thing that had hith- 
erto been seen in the North. Then followed a five 
days' /ete in honor of the cardinal and the other 
dignitaries. When the festivities were at an end, a 
meeting was called at which affairs of state were 
discussed, and the king voluntarily made several 
concessions to the clergy. The right of the Church 
to choose its own servants was confirmed, as also its 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 429 

right of separate jurisdiction. Ordeals were solemnly- 
abolished, because, as the cardinal expressed it, it was 
not seemly for Christian men to challenge God to 
give his verdict in human affairs. 

At his departure from Norway, the cardinal re- 
ceived a present of 15,000 marks sterling, or about 
half a million francs, for his master the Pope, besides 
a munificent compensation for his own services. 

The remainder of Haakon's reign was externally 
uneventful, and for that very reason beneficial to the 
country. The king was wise enough to see that the 
noisy deeds of war bring no enduring blessing, while 
the industries of peace produce sound prosperity and 
progress. He therefore devoted himself with un- 
flagging energy to the furtherance of agriculture and 
trade. His chief interest was, however, architecture. 
Cloisters, churches, and fortifications were built in 
different parts of the country. His love of splendor 
he indulged in the erection of a magnificent royal 
mansion in Bergen, and his benevolence in the erec- 
tion of a hospital for lepers. In Tromso he put up 
a church, which long enjoyed the distinction of being 
the northernmost church in the world. The laws of 
succession were so amended as to exclude illegitimate 
sons ; the civil and criminal codes were improved, 
and the number of lawmen increased to eleven. A 
well-equipped fleet of 300 ships was maintained, 
which, in the hands of a peace-loving king, was a 
guaranty of peace rather than a menace of war. By 
embassies, by exchanges of gifts with foreign princes, 
and by the power and splendor which he displayed 
at home and abroad, Haakon gained a place among 



4^6 THE STORY OF NOR WAV. 

the rulers of Europe, which had been accorded to 
no Norwegian king before him. The German em- 
peror, the noble and gifted Frederick II., sought his 
friendship, and maintained communication with him 
until his death. The Russian grand duke, Alexander 
Newsky, applied for the hand of his daughter, Chris- 
tina, for his son, and King Alfonso the Wise of 
Castile wooed her for his brother. The suit of the 
latter was accepted, and Christina married in 1257 the 
Spanish prince, Don Philip. The Pope, Alexander 
IV., endeavored to extort from Haakon a promise to 
participate in a crusade, and the king of France, 
Louis IX., offered him, '' in view of his power and ex- 
perience on the seas," the command of an allied 
Norse-French fleet ; and to crown his honors, it is 
said that the Pope in 1256 urged him as his candi- 
date for emperor of Germany. 

What gave King Haakon, in spite of the remote- 
ness of his country, this extraordinary influence 
abroad was particularly his fleet. During a brief 
war with Denmark in 1256 and 1257, the awe which 
the sight of this strong naval force inspired was so 
great, that it induced the Danish king, Christopher, 
to make peace on Haakon's terms without venturing 
a battle. The Icelanders, enfeebled and brutalized 
by perpetual internecine feuds, acknowledged his 
supremacy and promised to pay him tribute (1261). 
The few and scattered inhabitants of Greenland like- 
wise recognized his overlordship. A dispute con- 
cerning the Orkneys and the Shetland Isles led to 
war with the Scottish king, Alexander HI. Haakon, 
determined to maintain his power over these distant 



HAAKON HAAKONSSON THE OLD. 



431 



dependencies, which had already cost Norway so much 
blood and treasure, started with his fleet for Scotland 
(1263), but suffered severely from a storm which 
wrecked many of his ships. He sailed around to the 




NORWEGIAN STABBUR, OR STORE-HOUSE. 



western side of Scotland, ravaged the coasts of 
Cantire and Bute, and fought a battle at Largs (near 
the entrance to the Firth of Clyde), in which, accord- 
ing to the account of the Scots, the Norsemen were 
defeated, while, according to the sagas, they were 
victorious. At best, however, the battle afforded 
them no advantage. For Haakon retired, immedi- 



43^ . THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

ately after, to the Orkneys, where he determined to 
spend the winter, hoping to renew the campaign 
again in the spring. Here he was suddenly taken 
ill and died in Kirkevaag, December 15, 1263. Dur- 
ing his illness he had the sagas of his ancestors read 
aloud to him, from Halfdan the Swarthy down to 
the days of his grandfather, King Sverre. During 
the reading of Sverre's saga he passed quietly away. 

All records agree in the judgment that Haakon 
Haakonsson was a wise and noble king. He was 
not a man of genius, not endowed with the brilliant 
gifts of his grandfather. But he was what we call a 
safe man. He possessed strong common-sense ; was 
generous and forgiving, yet resolute and firm where 
justice demanded severity. His noble heart and his 
clear-sighted intelligence led him invariably to choose 
the right. He was therefore a great king, without 
being necessarily a great man, unless a well-balanced 
combination of all average good qualities constitutes 
in itself greatness. His enemy, Duke Skule, was in 
many respects a more brilliant personality, and yet 
what a misfortune it would have been to Norway, if 
Skule had displaced Haakon ! 

In appearance Haakon resembled his grandfather. 
He was, like him, of middle height, and had the same 
large and wondrously expressive eyes. He looked 
taller when he sat than when he stood, but his pres- 
ence was always dignified and impressive. He was 
fifty-nine years old when he died, and had ruled over 
Norway forty-six years. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND. 

During the reign of Haakon Haakonsson lived 
the renowned Icelandic historian, Snorre Sturlasson. 
It is due to him that the ancient history of Norway 
has been saved from oblivion. His great work, 
called Heimskringla (the Circle of the Earth), after 
the words with which it begins, is a coherent and in 
the main reliable record of the events which took 
place in Norway from the time of Harold the Fair- 
haired down to the Battle of Ree in ii 77. The 
more or less mythical history which precedes the 
reign of Harold is also included, though it can 
scarcely, in many features, lay claim to credibility. 
The style is clear and vigorous, and the characteriza- 
tions are extremely vivid. Scaldic lays are introduced 
into the text as evidences of the veracity of the nar- 
rative, and anecdotes are preserved which throw a 
strong light upon the characters of the heroes. The 
Heimskringla is, accordingly, not a loose conglom- 
eration of fact and fiction, such as monkish chroni- 
clers in the Middle Ages were in the habit of com- 
posing, but a historic work of high rank, betraying a 
mature critical spirit and artistic taste, in style and 
arrangement. Several scaldic lays are also attributed 

433 



434 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

to Snorre, besides portions of the Younger Edda — a 
collection of myths and legends, dealing with the 
traditions of the ancient Asa faith. It is as editor 
and collector, however, not as author, that he is here 
entitled to credit. 

Snorre Sturlasson was born in Iceland in 1 178, and 
was, at the age of three, adopted by the great chief- 
tain, Jon Loftsson, a grandson of Saemund the 
Learned. His father was Sturla Thordsson, a high- 
born but turbulent man, and his mother, Gudny 
Bodvar's daughter, Jon Loftsson, had inherited a 
very considerable collection of historical MSS. from 
his grandfather, Saemund, and his house was the 
home of the best culture which the island at that 
time possessed. Snorre, though any thing but a 
book-worm, became interested in the myths and tales 
of paganism, and by intercourse with his foster- 
father imbibed a taste for historical research. After 
the death of the latter in 1198, he found himself 
penniless, his mother having wasted his paternal 
inheritance. In order to maintain his dignity, he 
was therefore obliged to look about for a rich mar- 
riage, and by the aid of his brothers succeeded in 
gaining the hand of the wealthiest heiress in Iceland. 
He now devoted himself to the task of increasing 
his power. By shrewd bargaining, by intimidation, 
and by open violence he gained possession of six 
large estates and amassed an enormous fortune. 
Iceland, at that time, was torn with factional feuds, 
and Snorre understood to perfection the art of fish- 
ing in troubled waters. He was a man of energetic 
and determined character — a man of large plans and 




IJORGADAL IN THE NOKTH QP ICEi^ND* 



43^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

few scruples. There is a vigorous worldliness visible 
in all his acts, and a prudent adaptation of means to 
ends. At his residence, Reykjaholt, which he forti- 
fied, improved, and beautified in a manner, the like 
of which had never been seen in Iceland, he lived 
like a prince, maintaining an armed force which 
seemed to threaten the republic. Ruins of his bath- 
house are yet to be seen, and yet bear his name 
(Snorrelaug). The bath was built of hewn stones, 
and the hot water was conducted by a stone aque- 
duct, from the neighboring geysers. 

Snorre had two brothers, Thord and Sighvat. 
The former was of a quiet disposition, and not over- 
ambitious, while the latter was Snorre's counterpart, 
and like him engaged in increasing his fortune by 
trickery and violence. 

Two men, thus constituted, would scarcely be re- 
strained by their fraternal relation, when their inter- 
ests clashed ; and before long, we find Sighvat and 
Snorre at swords' points. 

By the weight of his influence, Snorre gradually 
absorbed the more important offices in the gift of 
his countrymen. Thus he was, in 1215, elected 
speaker of the law, and in this capacity came in con- 
flict with his foster-brother, Saemund Jonsson, who 
took exception to one of his rulings. The Icelandic 
Althing was both a legislative assembly and a 
supreme court, and it was the duty of the speaker in 
legal cases to decide what was law. If any of the 
contending parties rejected the decision of the Al- 
thing, an appeal to the sword was always open to 
him. The law was a consultative, not an absolute 



THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND. 43/ 

power, and depended upon its fairness for its author- 
ity. Snorre, whose duty it was to give weight to 
the law, had so small respect for his office, that he 
appeared with eight hundred and forty armed men, 
determined to overawe his opponents. A compro- 
mise was with difficulty arranged, but the seed of 
mischief had been sown, and was not slow to sprout 
and bear fruit. 

Snorre's fame had, in the meanwhile, reached Nor- 
way, and many honorable invitations were extended 
to him from the foremost chieftains of the land. 
Accordingly he set sail in 1218, with a large train of 
followers, visited King Haakon and Earl Skule, and 
gained the latter's friendship. The king made him 
his liegeman, and it is said that Snorre promised 
Skule to bring Iceland under the dominion of the 
mother country. The plan was a tempting one. If 
by the surrender of the liberties of the island, he 
could attain the dignity of Earl of Iceland, he could, 
at one blow, by Skule's aid, crush all his enemies, and 
reign undisputed as the first man in the land. On 
his return home, however, he discovered that the 
obstacles in his way were greater than he had antici- 
pated. It appears, even, that he repented of his 
rash promise, and was anxious to postpone the day of 
its fulfilment. Whether, in his subsequent machina- 
tions, he meant to secure his own predominance, as a 
means to carrying out his bargain with the earl, is 
difficult to determine. 

In 1222 Snorre's rival and bitterest enemy, Sae- 
mund Jonsson, died, and his children, who were at 
variance about an inheritance from their uncle, Orm 



438 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Jonsson, called upon Snorre to arbitrate between 
them. They did this, not because they loved him 
and had confidence in his fairness, but because they 
feared him and were anxious to have the old feud 
terminated. Snorre understood this perfectly, and 
had no hesitation in taking advantage of his position. 
Having recently been separated from his wife, he 
saw a chance of further enriching himself by marry- 
ing the beautiful Solveig, the sister of the contend- 
ing brothers. H e accordingly divided the inheritance 
so as to give her the lion's share ; but just as he 
seemed to have made sure of his game, his nephew, 
Sturla Sighvatsson, stepped up and snatched the girl 
from his expectant arms. By his unfair arbitration, 
he thus benefited the man who was henceforth 
to become his most dangerous enemy. Nothing 
daunted, however, Snorre turned his attention to 
another and far wealthier heiress, whom he succeeded 
in marrying. By a series of bargains, in which he 
made an unscrupulous use of the fear which his name 
inspired, he continued to increase his wealth, until 
his power overshadowed that of all other chieftains 
in the island. Sturla, who in shrewdness and daring 
was more than a match for his uncle, pursued a simi- 
lar course, and with the perpetual clashing of inter- 
ests their hostility grew more pronounced. Snorre 
had, in the meanwhile, by his friendship for Earl Skule, 
incurred the enmity of King Haakon. Sturla on 
his return from a pilgrimage to Rome, succeeded in 
gaining the king's confidence, and in deepening his 
distrust of Snorre. He made now the same bargain 
with the king that his uncle had previously made 



440 THE STOR V OF NOR WA V. 

with Skule, promising, in return for the dignity of 
Earl of Iceland, to bring the country under the Nor- 
wegian crown. On his return home, he did not, 
however, at once venture to attack his rival, but con- 
tented himself with picking quarrels with his son, 
Urokja, and his son-in-law, Gissur Thorvaldsson. 
The former he captured and maimed, but in his con- 
flict with the latter he succumbed. In a regular 
battle, which was fought in 1238, both Sturla and his 
father, Sighvat, were killed. Snorre was at that time 
in Norway, where he had the imprudence to commit 
himself as a partisan of Skule, and thereby still fur- 
ther incensed the king. Contrary to the command 
of the latter, he returned to Iceland, where his pre- 
dominance seemed now secured. But King Haakon, 
who henceforth regarded him as an open enemy, be- 
came the means of his destruction. Snorre had 
already, by his rapacity and greed, incurred the hos- 
tility of his son-in law, Gissur Thorvaldsson, and 
with him the king opened negotiatins, demanding 
of him that he should either kill his father-in-law or 
send him as a prisoner to Norway. Gissur accord- 
ingly attacked Snorre at Reykjaholt with seventy 
armed men, and slew him (1241). 

Snorre's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, who at one 
time was a great chieftain and a defender of Icelan- 
dic independence, continued the Heimskringla in 
his uncle's spirit, writing the Saga of Haakon 
Haakonsson. This is a model biography, clearly and 
vigorously written, and abounding in interesting de- 
tails. Another remarkable book, which was written 
in Norway during Haakon's reign, is the so-called 



THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND. 



441 



King's Mirror (Konungsskuggsja). It contains, in 
the shape of a dialogue between father and son, 
moral teachings and rules of life and conduct. Its 
maxims of worldly wisdom and rules of etiquette give 
a vivid insight into the modes of life and thought in 
the thirteenth century. 





CHAPTER XXIX. 

MAGNUS LAW-MENDER (1263-1280). 

With the death of Haakon Haakonsson, the con- 
tinuous story of the sagas ceases. A fragment of 
the life of his son, Magnus Law-Mender (Lagaboter), 
written by Sturla Thordsson, is preserved, but the 
greater portion has unhappily been lost. What is 
known concerning the later kings, during the period 
of independence, is derived from many scattered and 
often unreliable sources. A period of decline, at 
first gradual and imperceptible, set in with the reign 
of King Magnus, and culminated in the loss of inde- 
pendence. 

Magnus had been proclaimed king during his 
father's lifetime, and as he was of age, the govern- 
ment passed into his hands without dispute. Being 
indisposed to continue the expensive war with Scot- 
land, he sent his chancellor, Askatin, to Alexander 
HI. and obtained peace on the condition of ceding 
the Island of Man and the Shetland Isles, receiving 
in return 4,000 marks sterling, besides an annual 
tribute of 100 marks. The latter stipulation was 
intended to save appearances, as an annual tribute 
might well be interpreted as a continued recognition 
of the supremacy of the king of Norway. 

442 



MAGNUS LAW-MENDER. 443 

It has often been questioned whether Magnus 
acted wisely in refusing to draw the sword to preserve 
the integrity of his kingdom. That the Scottish 
isles already had cost Norway more in blood and 
treasure than they were worth, is generally conceded ; 
and the chances were that, as Scotland increased in 
power, still greater efforts would be required to assert 
the sway of Norway over the remote dependencies. 
Moreover, as England later rose to become a Euro- 
pean power and absorbed Scotland, it was merely a 
question of time when Norway would be compelled 
to relax its hold upon the islands. Whether it was 
a mere native disinclination to fight, or a careful 
counting of the cost, which induced Magnus to depart 
from his father's policy, time seems to have justified 
the wisdom of his course. For all that, it is undeni- 
able that the respect and influence abroad which 
Norway had gained by Haakon's assertion of the 
national dignity, were much diminished by the un- 
warlike spirit of his son. He had indeed the satis- 
faction to add Iceland to his possessions. But even 
this was in no wise due to his skill or merit. It was 
apparently the result of King Haakon's interference 
in the feuds of the Sturlungs, but in a deeper sense 
it was due to causes which do not lie so near the sur- 
face. The descendants of the proud men who, during 
the reign of Harold the Fairhaired, emigrated from 
Norway, merely because they would not surrender 
their allodial rights, would not have surrendered lib- 
erty itself without resistance, if they had not sadly 
degenerated from their ancestors. 

Liberty had in Iceland long ago degenerated into 



444 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

license. No law had the power to bind the strong. 
It is a mistake to suppose that the institutions of the 
country were democratic. Though theoretically the 
rights of every free man were recognized, in practice 
they soon came to amount to very little. Icelandic so- 
ciety early separated itself into a yeomanry or peas- 
antry and an aristocracy. The latter, who had the 
government entirely in their hands, proceeded by a 
series of bloody feuds to exterminate each other, 
until, of the fifty or more ruling families, scarcely 
half a dozen were left in possession of their dignity 
and power. As a matter of course, these half a 
dozen then endeavored to cut each other's throats, 
and, as the struggle grew fiercer, welcomed aid from 
any source and at any price. All public interests 
were lost sight of in the furious strife for personal 
ascendency. The proud sense of independence, 
which had been the glory of the race, developed into 
a mere ferocious passion for power, and a savage de- 
termination to crush out rivalry. Civic rights, moral 
obligations, and the bonds of blood were equally dis- 
regarded ; brother waged war against brother and 
father against son. Murder and arson were every- 
day occurrences. Complete anarchy prevailed. Of 
this state of things Haakon Haakonsson took ad- 
vantage, and by aiding one faction against the other 
secured the allegiance of the conquering party and 
thereby the submission of the island itself to the 
crown of Norway. Snorre's son-in-law and slayer, 
Gissur Thorvaldsson, was the first Earl of Iceland. 
He received the dignity from King Haakon (1258), 
before his countrymen had yet recognized the latter's 
overlordship. 



MA GN US LA W-MENDER. ^45 

If it be true that the happiest nations are those 
which have no history, it may be safe to conclude 
that the happiest periods of a nation's Hfe are the 
most uneventful. If so, the reign of Magnus Haa- 
konsson afforded every chance of happiness to his 
subjects. The peasant cultivated contentedly his 
fields, and, undisturbed, the merchant and the artisan 
pursued their avocations. The development of the 
resources of the country afforded the king satisfac- 
tion, and he did all in his power to further every 
peaceful industry. To this end he also interested 
himself in legislation, and spent many years of his 
life in revising the laws and making them uniform. 
Formerly the country had been divided into four 
judicial districts, each with its own thing and 
its own laws. The Yrostdi-tkmgs code was the 
law of Trondelag, the Guldi-things code was valid 
on the western coast, the Eidsivia code in the Op- 
lands, and the Borgar-///2>^^'^ code in Viken. Out of 
these four, Magnus now caused a new general code 
to be elaborated for the whole country, abolishing 
what was antiquated, removing inconsistencies and 
adapting the spirit of the legislation to the needs of 
the age. For four hundred years his laws remained 
in force, and a few of them have remained until re- 
cent times. All things, great and small, relating to 
civic life interested him ; and a certain over-confidence 
in the power of law to regulate all human con- 
cerns is traceable in his labors. P'or the cities he 
elaborated a municipal law, and for his vassals and 
courtiers a court law {Hirdskraa), which was, how- 
ever, an adaptation of a previously existing code, 



44^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

dating from the days of Sverre. The court law dealt 
with the feudal duties and privileges of vassals, pre- 
scribed rules for courtly intercourse, and a fixed 
ceremonial for the proclamation of a king, the con- 
ferring of the feudal dignities, etc. Amo-ng other 
things it ordained that no longer, as of old, should a 
peasant, as the representative of the people, confer 
the royal dignity upon the heir to the throne, but 
the man of highest rank present. 

An inclination is visible in King Magnus' legisla- 
tion to break with the democratic past, and to 
remodel Norway, as nearly as possible, after foreign 
patterns. It was particularly England, with its 
feudal institutions, which seemed to him and his 
surroundings worthy of imitation. Although it was 
by no means a pure democracy which had prevailed 
in Norway hitherto, there had yet been a recogni- 
tion of the people as the source of power, and the 
old stubborn sense of independence which charac- 
terized the peasantry had never been eradicated. 
Hitherto the laws had been submitted to the people 
at the tilings^ where every free-born man could make 
himself heard. Now this venerable custom was 
abolished, and the king and his council reserved for 
themselves the right to make and repeal laws, with- 
out consulting the people. That this decree was 
accepted without protest, nay appears to have 
caused no particular excitement, shows plainly the 
change that had come over the spirit of the Norse- 
men. If a king had proposed such a law, in the days 
of Haakon the Good or Olaf Tryggvesson, he would 
have risked his throne and his life. Whether it was 



MAGNUS LAW-MENDER. 44/ 

because royalty had risen to such dignity and power 
that it seemed hopeless to oppose it, or because the 
tribal aristocracy, instead of making common cause 
with the people, had attached itself to the crown, 
certain it is that the supine acceptance of so radical 
a change argued a degeneracy which explains the sub- 
sequent events. 

It is scarcely to be wondered at that the rise of 
feudalism throughout Europe, during the thirteenth 
century, also had its effect upon the institutions of 
Norway. The ideas which Magnus embodied in his 
laws were, so to speak, in the air; and the commer- 
cial intercourse with England had familiarized the 
Norsemen with the titles and the pomp and circum- 
stance of chivalry. Thus the Royal Council, con- 
sisting of the chancellor, the earls, and the liegemen, 
was obviously copied after the English institution of 
the same name, and, to make the resemblance com- 
plete, the ancient title of liegeman was abolished 
and that of baron substituted. The court officials 
were made knights and squires.* A privileged 
class was thus raised distinctly above the people ; 
and the foundation laid for a hereditary nobility. 
A partial immunity from taxes was granted to barons 
and knights, and the lucrative offices in the gift of 
the crown were parcelled out among them. Though 
some elements of the ancient tribal aristocracy were 
absorbed in the new order, there was also a large 
element which owed its rise purely to royal favor. 
It is thus to be noted, that the new nobility of Nor- 

* It is impossible to give an adequate translation of the word herra 
in this connection. It is a lower title than baron and knight. 



44^ THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

way was in the main a court nobility, which depended 
upon the crown for its dignity, and could not be 
expected, when occasion demanded, to antagonize 
the king in the interest of the people. It therefore 
shared the fate of royalty and lost its power when 
the royal house became extinct. For the later 
rulers, the Danish kings, were surrounded by a 
hungry aristocracy of their own, whose fortunes they 
were bound to push, and the Norse candidates for 
their favor had to be neglected. Thus it happened 
that the Norse aristocracy again returned to the 
people, from which it had originally risen. It was 
gradually absorbed by and identified with the peas- 
antry, which thereby gained more than the nobles 
lost. "" A compact class of allodial freeholders was 
formed, which, on account of their numbers and 
their remoteness from public affairs, may be styled a 
peasantry, but by reason of their liberty and self- 
assertion almost maintained the rank of a nobility." ^ 

It is this proud peasant-nobility which until this 
day have constituted the strength of the Norse people 
and the bulwark of its re-arisen liberty. They have 
at all times, even during the darkest days of the union 
with Denmark, constituted a force with which the 
government had to reckon. 

In spite of his conciliatory disposition. King Mag- 
nus' reign had its share of quarrels and disturbances. 
Chief among these was his controversy with the 
Church, which ended, on his part, with an abject sur- 
render. The archbishop, at that time, was the haughty 
and ambitious Jon the Red (Rode), who, before con- 
, *J. Sars : Udsigt over Norge's Historic, ii., 399. 



MAGNUS LAW~MENDER. 449 

senting to a change in the law of succession, which 
the king had much at heart, extorted from him a 
series of humiliating concessions. At a meeting of 
notables in Tunsberg (1277), Magnus bound himself 
to abstain from all interference in the selection of 
bishops, and to surrender to the latter the right of 
filling, in accordance with their pleasure, all the cler- 
ical offices. He conceded, moreover, to the arch- 
bishop the privilege of coining money and to have a 
hundred men in his personal service, who should be 
exempt from feudal obligations to the king. 

In his relation to foreign powers Magnus was 
equally unsuccessful in maintaining the dignity of 
his crown. When his brother-in-law, the Swedish 
king, Valdemar, begged him for help against his 
brother Magnus, who had deprived him of the 
greater part of his kingdom, preparations were indeed 
made for a grand campaign, but after several futile 
meetings and much talk, the Norwegian fleet was 
ordered home again and the Swedish king was left 
to his fate. To a proud and adventurous people like 
the Norsemen, jealous of their dignity at home and 
abroad, this unconquerable reluctance to draw the 
sword must have appeared humiliating. A high 
regard for honor and a genius for war had character- 
ized the race up to this time ; and however much 
one may disapprove of war, one cannot deny that 
peace may be bought at too high a price. The right 
to hold one's head high ; to feel proud of one's history 
and one's country, is a precious privilege, without 
which no race ever achieved great things. King 
Magnus, by lessening the prestige which the country 



4iO THE STORY OT NORWaY. 

had enjoyed during the reign of his father, therefore 
contributed much toward the decadence which fol- 
lowed. 

Physically as well as mentally, signs of degeneracy 
are beginning to be perceptible in the royal race of 
Norway. King Magnus was, indeed, endowed with 
a good intellect and his morals were blameless. But 
for all that, he was a far less sturdy and impressive 
personality than his father, and a still greater distance 
separated him from his great-grandfather, the wise, 
brave, gentle, unconquerable Sverre. Many of his 
imprudent acts are explained by the fact that his 
health was never vigorous. While he was yet in the 
prime of life, he began to suffer from ailments which 
warned his councillors that his days were numbered. 
He died in 1280, at the age of forty-one. 




CHAPTER XXX. 

ERIK PRIEST-HATER (1280-I299). 

The barons, who had acquired extensive privileges 
during the reign of King Magnus, had a chance to 
estabUsh their power still more securely during the 
minority of his son Erik, who, at his father's death, 
was but twelve years old. A great influence was also 
wielded by the imperious queen-dowager, Ingeborg, 
who made common cause with the barons and was 
the real soul of the regency. Of her two surviving sons, 
Duke Haakon, the younger, was the more fitted, by 
strength of body and mind, to occupy the throne. 
He received great fiefs, and though recognizing 
Erik's overlordship, conducted himself as an inde- 
pendent sovereign. He issued decrees, coined money, 
and made independent alliances with foreign princes. 
His brother was a week, good-natured man who 
never knew how to assert his will against that of his 
mother and his high-handed councillors. The latter, 
among whom the barons, Hallkell Agmundsson, 
Audun Hugleiksson, and Bjarne Erlingsson of Giske 
and Bjarko, were the most eminent, disapproved 
highly of the concessions which King Magnus had 
made to the Church, and were watching for an oppor- 
tunity to check the power and arrogance of the clergy. 

451 



452 , THE STORY OF NOEWAY, 

They found it necessary, however, to conceal their 
plans, until the king had been crowned by Arch- 
bishop Jon, and they even consented to have him 
include in the coronation oath the promise " to yield 
all due honor to the clergy and the bishops, and to 
repeal all bad laws, especially such as might conflict 
with the liberty of the Church." 

The archbishop interpreted this promise literally, 
and demanded after the coronation the repeal of the 
laws in question. The queen and the barons were, 
however, not disposed to yield a single point, but 
rather welcomed the opportunity to measure strength 
with the domineering prelates. It was of no use 
that the archbishop put Hallkell Agmundsson in 
the ban ; his colleagues only honored him more con- 
spicuously, and when Queen Ingeborg and Bjarne 
Erlingsson received the same punishment, they, as 
well as the people, showed an indifference, which left 
the archbishop powerless. After having vainly ap- 
pealed to the Pope, and having been foiled at the 
Roman Curia by ambassadors from the barons, Jon 
the Red and two other bishops were outlawed and 
compelled to leave the country. The archbishop 
died in exile in Sweden in 1282. 

The king, who was yet a mere boy, was neutral in 
this struggle. If the decision had rested with him, 
he would probably have continued his father's policy 
of concession, and the epithet '' Priest-Hater," which 
has been attached to his name, is therefore unde- 
served. 

When Erik was fourteen years old, he was married 
to Margaret of Scotland, the daughter of his grand- 



, ERIK PRIEST-HATER, 453 

father's enemy, King Alexander III. The young 
queen died, however, a year later, 'after having 
given birth to a daughter, who, on the death of 
King Alexander (1284), was acknowledged as the 
heir to the throne of Scotland. While yet a child 
(1290), the Maid of Norway, as she was called, em- 
barked for the land which she was to rule, but died 
before reaching it. Her father then, as his daugh- 
ter's heir, laid claim to the Scottish crown, but the 
armed interference of King Edward I. of England 
compelled him to abandon his candidacy. He had 
at that time another controversy on his hands, 
which threatened serious results. 

The queen-dowager, Ingeborg, was the daughter 
of the Danish king, Erik Plowpenny. Plis nephew, 
Erik Clipping, who succeeded his father, Christo- 
pher I., refused to surrender her inheritance, which 
consisted in landed estates in different parts of the 
kingdom. Magnus Law-Mender had vainly insisted 
upon the surrender of the property, and Erik, at 
the instigation of his mother, resumed negotiations, 
and, when these resulted in nothing, made threat- 
ening demonstrations. The Norse baron. Sir Alf 
Erlingsson, a special favorite of the queen, began to 
prey upon the shipping in the Sound, and by his 
recklessness and daring, made his name dreaded 
among seamen and merchants. He did, indeed, 
inflict much injury upon Danish commerce, and 
ravaged the coasts of Jutland and Halland ; but the 
principal sufferers were the cities of the Hanseatic 
League, which, by the concessions of Magnus Law- 
Mender, had obtained a virtual monopoly of the 



454 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

foreign trade of Norway. Their ships were now 
seized without mercy by the noble pirate, who 
added insult to injury by once appearing incog- 
nito among them in an open boat, and bargain- 
ing with them about the price which they had set 
upon his head. It was of no use that the League 
sent out ships of war to capture him ; he out- 
manoeuvred them, deceived them, sent them on a 
wild-goose chase, and ended by capturing his would- 
be captors. Though not officially authorized to 
carry on war in this fashion. Sir Alf perceived that 
his performances were winked at by the queen- 
dowager, who was actually so gratified at his suc- 
cess, that she had him created an earl, and induced 
the king to use him as his ambassador to England. 
As allies of the King of Denmark, the Hanseatic 
cities were, in the queen's opinion, entitled to no 
consideration, but she forgot in her blind hostility 
that they had it in their power to take revenge. 
Partly on account of the risk, partly as a measure 
of retaliation, the Hansa forbade the importation 
of grain and other staples of food to Norway, and 
the result was famine and misery. The hostilities 
with Denmark in the meanwhile continued, but 
were, after the death of Queen Ingeborg (1287), 
conducted, not by piracy, but by open warfare. 
A conspiracy was formed against the life of King 
Erik Clipping, and he was murdered, while on the 
chase (1286), by Marshal Stig, Count Jacob of- Hal- 
land, and others. The murderers, who were out- 
lawed in Denmark, found a refuge in Norway, and 
accompanied King Erik on his campaign against 



ERIK PRIEST-HATER. 455 

their native country in 1289. The city of Elsinore 
was burned, and the Norwegian fleet lay for four 
weeks near Copenhagen, serving as a basis of opera- 
tions for the outlawed king-slayers, who satisfied 
their private vengeance by burning cities and cas- 
tles. Three similar expeditions, during the follow- 
ing six years, brought Erik neither honor nor profit 
in proportion to the cost of the enterprise ; al- 
though, in the end, the Danish king, Erik Men- 
ved, was compelled to conclude an armistice for 
three years at Hinsgavl, in Funen (1295), at 
which he made a definite promise of the surrender 
of the disputed property. The king-slayers were 
permitted to return unmolested to their homes, 
and their estates were to be restored to them. 

The war with the Hanseatic cities had come to an 
end long before, by the peace of Kalmar, (1285). The 
formidable weapon which they wielded, in their 
ability to cut off supplies, gave them so great an ad- 
vantage that King Erik had no choice but to accept 
their terms. King Magnus of Sweden, who, ac- 
cording to mutual agreement, had been selected as 
umpire negotiated peace, on the conditions that King 
Erik should return to their owners all ships which 
had been captured, pay an indemnity of six thousand 
marks and greatly extend the commercial privileges 
of the Hansa. Thus the lawless valor of " Little Sir 
Alf," as the pirate earl was called, proved no less dis- 
astrous to his country than it did to himself. He 
did not appreciate the difference which the death of 
the queen had made in his position ; but continued 
to tread law and honor under foot with defiant 



45 6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

heedlessness. The baron, Sir Hallkell Agmundsson 
the commander of Oslo Castle, had for some reason in- 
curred his hostility ; and Earl Alf gathered, in the 
ancient fashion, a band of adventurers about him 
and commenced a rebellion, as it appears, against 
Duke Haakon, who was Sir Hallkell's protector. He 
even had the audacity to attack Oslo, set fire to the 
town, capture his foe, and after a brief imprisonment 
executed him. This daring murder brought upon 
him a sentence of outlawry ; and he was forced to 
seek refuge in Sweden, where King Magnus took 
him under his protection. His luck had, however, 
deserted him, for when again he appeared as a corsair 
in Danish waters, he was captured and brought in 
irons into the presence of Queen Agnes. According 
to the ballad, she twitted him on the smallness of his 
stature ; to which he replied that she would never 
live to see the day when she could bear such a son. 
Another and still more insolent remark made the 
queen so furious that she struck her fist against the 
table and declared that Little Sir Alf should be tor- 
tured on the rack, and his bones broken on the wheel. 
The sentence was executed the following day (1290). 
After the death of his first queen, King Erik had 
married Isabella Bruce, the sister of Robert, who 
later became King of Scotland. He had by this 
marriage a daughter, Ingeborg, who became the wife 
of Duke Valdemar, the brother of the Swedish 
king, Birger Magnusson. King Erik died at the age 
of thirty-one (1299), after having been king for nine- 
teen years. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

HAAKON LONGLEGS (HAALEGG), 1299-1319. 

Duke Haakon, the second son of Magnus Law- 
Mender, succeeded his brother without opposition. 
He was then twenty-nine years old, tall and of stately 
appearance. He had not been long upon the throne, 
before he showed the haughty barons that he meant 
to have a reckoning with them. He first summoned 
Sir Audun Hugleiksson to meet him in Bergen, 
tried him for treason, and had him executed (1302). 
A woman from Liibeck had, two years before, ap- 
peared in Norway and created much excitement by 
claiming to be the Princess Margaret, " The Maid of 
Norway," who had died on the Orkneys. Her trial 
proved her to be an impostor, and she was burned at 
the stake. According to one conjecture. Sir Audun 
was in some way compromised by her trial, and it is 
not unlikely that he may have encouraged her pre- 
tensions. The legend, however, relates that Sir Au- 
dun suffered death for having insulted the king's 
bride, Countess Euphemia of Arnstein, whom, in 
1295, he brought over from Germany. 

It must have been an unpleasant surprise to the 
barons, who had had their own way so long, to find a 
stern and determined master in the new king, and it 

457 



458 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

is the more to his credit that, in spite of their hos- 
tility, he induced them to consent to a change in 
the law of succession in favor of his daughter Inge- 
borg and her issue. As he was the only male de- 
scendant in the direct line of the old royal house, it 
was a source of uneasiness to him that he had no 
sons, and he foresaw that the only means of averting 
civil war, after his death, was to secure the succession 
to the prospective sons of his daughter, and in case 
she had none, to herself. Princess Ingeborg was, 
while a mere child, promised in marriage to the bril- 
liant and ambitious Duke Erik, the second son of 
King Magnus Birgersson of Sweden. By this be- 
trothal. King Haakon became involved in the quarrels 
of the dukes Erik and Valdemar with their brother, 
Birger Magnusson, whom they were endeavoring 
to dethrone. The dukes hated the king, and the 
king, who was jealous of Erik's popularity and emi- 
nence in chivalrous accomplishments, reciprocated 
their feelings. The long-smouldering hostility at 
last blazed forth, in 1306, when the dukes treacher- 
ously assaulted their brother and held him captive 
for about eighteen months. King Haakon was in- 
duced to take their part in the struggle, perhaps 
chiefly because his enemy, the king of Denmark, 
made common cause with King Birger. The good 
understanding between them did not, however, last 
long, for when it began to look as if Duke Erik 
aimed at the union of the three Scandinavian king- 
doms under his own sceptre, Haakon, as an interested 
party, could scarcely remain inactive. He demanded 
the restoration of the fiefs which he had granted the 



HAAKON LONGLEGS. 459 

duke during his exile. When this was refused, he 
opened negotiations with the king of Denmark, who 
was the brother-in-law of King Birger, and concluded 
a preliminary treaty at Copenhagen (130S) in accord- 
ance with which the Princess Ingeborg was to marry 
Magnus, the son of King Birger. Duke Erik then 
invaded Norway with an army, took Oslo and vainly 
besieged the fortress of Akershus. The province of 
Jemteland was also attacked by the Swedes, and the 
duke had in 1309 an indecisive fight with a portion 
of the Norwegian fleet in Kalfsund. Finally, after 
another fight, in which Erik gained the upper hand, 
negotiations were resumed, and by mutual conces- 
sions peace was reestablished (13 10). Duke Erik had 
a powerful ally at the Norwegian court in Queen 
Euphemia, whose love for him was not of an entirely 
maternal character. He had thus little difficulty in 
conciliating King Haakon and getting again the 
promise of his daughter's hand. The wedding was 
finally celebrated with much splendor in Oslo in 1 3 12. 
Duke Valdemar married the same day the king's 
niece, Ingeborg, the daughter of King Erik Priest- 
Hater. About four years later, when the hope had 
almost been abandoned, each of the duchesses bore 
a son. King Haakon's joy at this happy event was 
great, for it relieved him of his anxiety for the suc- 
cession. But his joy was of short duration. There 
was one man in Sweden who was not rejoiced at the 
birth of the young princes, and that was King Bir- 
ger. He feigned, however, delight, and invited his 
brothers to a great feast of reconciliation at the castle 
of Nykoping. When the festivities were at an end. 



460 * THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the dukes were thrown into prison and deprived of 
their hves. As there was no sign of violence on 
their bodies, the rumor went abroad that they had 
been starved to death. This was probably true. 
The tidings of this calamity gave King Haakon such 
a shock that he never recovered from it. He died, 
1 3 19, aged forty-nine years. With him the male line 
of the race of Harold the Fairhaired became extinct. 

The war with Denmark which had lasted twenty- 
eight years, was continued in a desultory fashion 
during Haakon's reign, but no important battles 
were fought. He used his fleet mainly as a threat 
to enforce his claims. All that he gained was the 
temporary possession of the province of Northern 
Halland, as security for the final surrender of his ma- 
ternal inheritance. 

In internal affairs King Haakon exhibited, accord- 
ing to the ideas of his age, no mean degree of states- 
manship. His administration was both prudent and 
vigorous. He checked the usurpations of the Han- 
seatic cities, which were driving native merchants 
out of the foreign trade, and deprived them of some of 
their privileges. An honest intention to do right, 
coupled with considerable ability, characterized both 
his public and private life. For all that, his despotic 
temper tended to alienate the people from public 
affairs ; and thus prepared the way for the following 
centuries of humiliation. 





B 


^^^p»^^ 


9 


B 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

MAGNUS SMEK (1319-I374), HAAKON MAGNUSSON 

(13 5 5-1 380), AND OLAF THE YOUNG 

(1381-1387). 

Magnus Eriksson, the son of Duke Erik and 
Ingeborg, was only three years old when his grand-, 
father died, and the government therefore fell into 
the hands of a regency, the members of which had 
already been designated by King Haakon. Shortly 
before, a rebellion had broken out in Sweden against 
King Birger, who, on account of the murder of his 
brothers, was detested by his people. He was de- 
posed and his son Magnus, though he was in no wise 
responsible for his father's crimes, was executed. At 
the instance of the regent. Mats Kettilmundsson, 
Magnus Eriksson was proclaimed king ; and Norway 
and Sweden were thus for the first time united under 
one ruler. The union was a mere nominal one, the 
two countries having separate laws and administra- 
tions, and nothing in common except the king, 
who was to divide his time equally between them. 
During Magnus' minority, however, his mother. 
Duchess Ingeborg, governed in Norway with the 
utmost recklessness, making great scandal by her 
love of the Danish nobleman Knut Porse, duke of 

461 



462 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Halland, whom she later married. To enrich him 
she squandered the revenues and forfeited her popu- 
larity. When the treasury was on the verge of 
bankruptcy and loud murmurs of discontent were 
heard from all sides, the duchess was at last deprived 
of her power, and Sir Erling Vidkunsson of Bjarko 
and Giske was made regent in her place. 

When King Magnus, surnamed Smek, reached his 
majority, he assumed the government in both coun- 
tries (1332). Being born a Swede, he lacked compre- 
hension of the Norsemen, and showed little interest 
in their affairs. He was a weak and good-natured 
man, anxious to please all, and therefore succeeded 
in pleasing no one. In Sweden he had his hands full, 
in endeavoring to control the unruly nobility, whose 
pretensions were supported by his oldest son, Erik. 
He therefore rarely came to Norway, and made no 
adequate provision for the government during his 
absence. Erling Vidkunsson then made himself the 
spokesman of the universal discontent, and with other 
magnates compelled the king, at a meeting in Bergen 
(1350), to take his second son, Haakon, as co-regent 
and to abdicate the crown of Norway, in his favor, 
as soon as he should have reached his majority. It 
was then understood that Erik would be his father's 
successor in Sweden. But unforseen events frus- 
trated this expectation. In 1359 Magnus and his 
queen, the wily and malicious Blanca of Namur, 
made a visit to King Valdemar Atterdag in Copen- 
hagen. It was there arranged that Haakon should 
marry Valdemar*s eldest daughterand heir, Margaret, 
and that the Danish king should extend his protec- 



MAGNUS SMEK. 463 

tion to Queen Blanca's favorite, Bengt Algotsson, 
whom Erik had declared to be a public enemy and 
was determined to destroy. At the instigation of 
King Valdemar, she chose, however, an easier way to 
accomplish her baneful purposes. She poisoned her 
son. Haakon was now heir both to Norway and 
Sweden, and his and Margaret's issue, presumptively, 
to Denmark. The Swedes were by no means pleased 
with this arrangement, and the Norwegian magnates 
would, if they had been consulted, have expressed 
themselves no less strongly against it. They must 
have foreseen in this union the inevitable decay of 
the Norse national spirit and the gradual extinction 
of their nationality. The Swedes, being a larger peo- 
ple, had less to fear from it, but yet regarded it as 
prejudicial to their interests. Their feeling toward 
Denmark was not, just then, of a friendly character, 
chiefly owing to the pusillanimity of their king, in 
ceding the provinces Skaane, Halland, and Blekinge 
to the latter country, without any adequate return, 
unless it was a pledge of aid from King Valdemar 
against his own subjects. So secure felt Magnus in 
his new alliance, that he actually helped the Danish 
king to conquer the Swedish island Gottland, and 
permitted him to sack the town of Visby, which was 
one of the principal depots of the Baltic trade. 

Now, the patience of the Swedes was at last ex- 
hausted. The Royal Council, supported by the no- 
bility, declared that King Magnus, as well as his son 
Haakon, had forfeited their rights to the crown 
(1363), and called Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg to 
the succession. Weak as he was, however, Magnus 



4^4 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

was not minded to give up his kingdom without a 
struggle. With whatever troops he could scrape 
together from the provinces which were yet faithful 
to him, he attacked King Albrecht at Enkoping, but 
was defeated and taken prisoner. Haakon, danger- 
ously wounded, made his escape into Norway. 
Though the Norwegians cared little for Magnus, 
they were too loyal to refuse Haakon their aid in his 
attempt to liberate him from the horrible prison in 
which he was languishing. The war was therefore 
continued with varying success until the Hanseatic 
League interfered and came near deciding it in 
Albrecht's favor. The German merchants had, dur- 
ing the feeble government of Magnus, obtained so 
great a power in Norway that they trod justice under 
foot, slew their enemies, refused to accept the king's 
money (which was not good), and leagued together 
to defy the laws and protect each other from punish- 
ment. The king was so incensed at their arrogant 
conduct, that he issued a decree expelling all Ger- 
mans from the country. Unhappily he had not the 
power to enforce obedience to this mandate, and 
when the Hansa made war upon him, he was obliged 
to buy peace by further concessions. This left him 
comparatively free, however, to prosecute the war 
with King Albrecht, and when all negotiations had 
proved futile, he advanced with an army upon Stock- 
holm, laying the country waste as he progressed. 
Here, at last, peace was concluded (1371) on the con- 
dition that Haakon should pay a ransom of twelve 
thousand marks for his father and renounce his claim 
to the throne of Sweden, In return, Magnus was to 



MA GNUS SMEK AND HAAKON MA GNUSSON. 465 

receive Skara-Stift, Vestergotland, and Vermeland. 
The old king was, however, not to enjoy long his 
dearly bought liberty. Three years later he was 
drowned in the Bommelfjord in Norway (1374), and 
his son only survived him six years. Like so maciy 
of the kings of Norway, he died in his prime (1380). 
The reigns of Magnus Eriksson and his son were a 
period of great disaster to Norway. In 1344 the 
Gula-Elv suddenly changed its course, owing to the 
fall of an enormous rock into its bed, and forty-eight 
farms were destroyed, and two hundred and fifty 
people and a multitude of cattle were drowned. In 
Iceland an earthquake and a great eruption of Hekla 
spread alarm and desolation. But the worst of all 
calamities was the Black Death, a terrible pestilence, 
which, after having ravaged Germany, England, and 
Southern Europe, reached Norway in 1349. An 
English merchant vessel first brought the pestilence 
to Bergen, whence it spread with great rapidity 
over the entire land. In Drontheim the archbishop 
and all the canons of the cathedral chapter died, ex- 
cept a single one, who then alone elected the new 
archbishop. In many districts the entire population 
was swept away ; horses and cattle starved to death, 
for want of attendance, or perished in the woods. 
The results of the labor of centuries were destroyed. 
Where once there had been fertile valleys and ani- 
mated human intercourse, the forest grew up un- 
heeded. The fox barked in the deserted farm-houses, 
and the wolf prowled in the empty churches. In 
many places the dead lay unburied, until, by the slow 
process of dissolution, the earth reclaimed them. 



466 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Sloth and indifference took possession of the sur- 
vivors. The peasant neglected to till his fields, 
because he could procure neither horses nor laborers 
to assist him. Famine and death were the result. 
All industries stagnated, and what there was left of 
Norwegian commerce fell completely into the hands 
of foreigners. As is usually the case in the times of 
great plagues, when the restraints of social order are 
relaxed, vice grew riotous, and every extreme of 
lawless passion was wantonly displayed. Centuries 
elapsed before the country recovered from the results 
of this terrible calamity. But there were other 
causes which combined with the pestilence in pro- 
ducing the political impotence and social barbarism 
which followed. There is a danger in doing injus- 
tice, even to the Black Death, and it has, until 
recently, been the fashion to make it solely respon- 
sible for the eclipse of Norway's glory. 

Olaf, the only son of Haakon Magnusson and 
Margaret, was proclaimed King of Norway at his 
father's death. Five years earlier he had, after the 
death of his maternal grandfather, been elected 
king of Denmark. As he was yet a child, his 
mother Margaret and the Council of the Regency 
conducted the government in his name. Thus com- 
menced the union of Norway and Denmark, which 
lasted without interruption for 434 years, and which 
proved so disastrous to the former country. Olaf 
died at the age of seventeen at Falsterbro in 
Skaane. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

NORWAY DURING THE KALMAR UNION. 

Olaf was succeeded both in Denmark and Nor- 
way by his mother, Margaret, who became reigning 
queen. The real heir to the Norwegian throne was, 
in accordance with the law of succession, the Lord 
High Steward (Drost) Haakon Jonsson, a grandson 
of Agnes, an illegitimate daughter of Haakon Long- 
legs. But he did not possess the power to assert his 
claim against Margaret, who, by skilful intriguing, 
had induced the archbishop, Vinald, and the majority 
of the clergy to take her side. The Norwegian 
Council of Regency, in which the partisans of the 
queen likewise preponderated, seemed ready to do 
any thing which she demanded, and even yielded to 
her wish in pledging themselves to choose her grand- 
nephew, Erik of Pomerania, as her successor (1388). 
In accordance with this promise they declared Erik, 
during the following year (1389), king of Norway, 
under the guardianship of Margaret, until he should 
reach his majority. 

The ambitious queen now turned her attention to 
Sweden, where she had a bitter and determined foe 
in Albrecht of Mecklenburg. He was remotely 
related to the royal house of Norway, and therefore 

467 



468 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

believed himself to be the nearest heir to the throne. 
He was boiling over with animosity toward Mar- 
garet, whom he called '^ Queen Breechless," and 
never referred to, except with approbrious epithets. 
As this kind of harmless ammunition produced no 
effect, however, he boldly assumed the title of king 
of Denmark and Norway, and prepared to enforce his 
claim. But he had reckoned without his host, when 
he supposed that the Swedes would support him in 
this enterprise. The Swedish nobility, which pos- 
sessed greater power than the king, had long been dis- 
satisfied with Albrecht, because he had surrounded 
himself with Germans, to whom he had given fiefs 
and posts of honor. They had long desired to rid 
themselves of him, and when Margaret made over- 
tures to them, they seized the opportunity to accom- 
plish their purpose. In February, 1389, Albrecht 
had to confront a united Swedish, Danish, and Nor- 
wegian army. The battle, fought at Falkoping, in 
Vestergotland, was fraught with great results. Al- 
brecht, who was unacquainted with the region, ven- 
tured with his heavy cavalry out upon a frozen 
marsh, fell through, and was taken prisoner. Mar- 
garet had him now in her power and determined to 
make him pay the penalty for the liberty he had 
taken with her name. Instead of the crown of Den- 
mark, which he had meant to wear, she put upon his 
head a fool's cap with a tail 28 feet long, and mocked 
him mercilessly. He was then imprisoned in the 
castle of Lindholm, in Skaane, where he spent six 
years. 

After the battle of Falkoping Margaret's army 



NORWA V DURING THE KALMAR UNION. 469 

met with no resistance in the southern provinces; 
but Stockholm had to be subjected to a long siege, 
during which it suffered greater depredations from 
internal than from external foes. Bloody feuds be- 
tween two contending parties raged within the city. 
A brotherhood of pirates, the so-called Vitalie 
Brethren, furnished the citizens with provisions, 
thereby delaying their surrender. These pirates had 
for the nonce entered into an alliance with Rostock 
and Wismar, two cities of Mecklenburg, which sym- 
pathized with the imprisoned Albrecht. In the end 
Stockholm was forced to open its gates to Queen 
Margaret, in accordance with a compromise which 
was concluded in 1395. Albrecht was to pay a ran- 
som of sixty thousand marks, and in case of his 
failure to provide this sum, within three years, he 
should either return to his prison or surrender Stock- 
holm. He chose to do the latter. 

Margaret had now reached the goal of her desires. 
She was the ruler of the whole Scandinavian race. 
She might have placed the triple crown upon her 
head, but preferred to secure this proud prize to her 
nephew, Erik of Pomerania, by having him crowned 
while she was yet alive. To this end she summoned 
representatives of the three kingdoms to a meeting 
in Kalmar, where a draft was made for a constitu- 
tion, upon which the union was to be based. 
Although the document was signed by the Nor- 
wegian, Swedish, and Danish magnates present, it 
was scarcely legally binding upon their countrymen. 
It bears the date of July 20, 1397, and contains the 
following stipulations: 



470 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

1. The three kingdoms were to, be eternally united 
under one king. 

2. If the king died without issue, the magnates of 
the three kingdoms should come together and peace- 
ably elect a successor. 

3. Each kingdom should be governed in accord- 
ance with its own laws and customs; but if one of 
the kingdoms was attacked, the two others should, 
in good faith, assist in its defence. 

4. The king and his councillors from the three 
kingdoms should have the right to enter into foreign 
alliances, and whatever they agreed upon should be 
binding upon the three countries. 

This was the famous Kalmar Union, which, might 
have been a blessing to the brother kingdoms, but 
which to two of them, at least, became a curse. At 
first sight, it seemed a rational arrangement which 
promised success. The three nations were so closely 
akin, that they understood without effort each other's 
languages, which were but slight modifications of 
the same original tongue. If the forces which 
had been wasted in mutual wars and rivalries could 
have been combined for mutual help and common 
purposes, the kingdom of Scandinavia would have 
risen in prosperity and strength and would have 
taken a place among the European powers. Under 
a wise and far-sighted policy, the society of the 
three kingdoms could have been gradually amalga- 
mated, its similarities and common interests empha- 
sized, its differences slowly obliterated. If the 
kings of the Union had had the slightest conception 
of the task that was presented to them, and had 



NORWA Y DURING THE KALMAR UNION. A^Jl 

been capable of viewing themselves apart from their 
Danish nationality, such results might have been 
achieved. But they were, with a single exception, 
utterly destitute of political ability and foresight. 




^^^&^'^w#i^-<'/ ■~^s>' 



QUEEN MARCiARET. 

They were determined to raise the Danish to the 
position of a dominant nationality and to reduce 
Norway and Sweden to a provincial relation. Here- 
by they aroused again the ancient jealousies. They 
sent a troop of Danish and German nobles to prey 



4/2 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

i 
Upon the latter countries, which they seemed to 
regard as conquered territory. Tlie Swedes com- 
plained of their being obliged to pay taxes, in order 
to defray the expenses of Danish wars, and they 
were vehement in their denunciation of the extortion 
of the Danish officials who plundered their provinces 
like Roman proconsuls. 

The Norwegians were preliminarily disposed to be 
more patient, chiefly because they lacked spokesmen, 
the remnants of their old nobility being too power- 
less to assert themselves against the Danes. Nor 
can it be said that, during Queen Margaret's life, the 
conditions were intolerable. She died, however, in 
Flensborg (141 2) aged 59 years, leaving her wide 
dominions in the feeble hands of Erik of Pomerania. 

Erik had inherited from Margaret a war with the 
dukes of Sleswick, which lasted for twenty-five years, 
exhausting the resources of his realm and completely 
revealing his incapacity for government. The Swedes 
grumbled at the taxation which the war necessitated, 
and rebelled under the leadership of Engelbrekt 
Engelbrektsson. A Danish prefect, Josse Eriksson, 
had been guilty of great cruelty to the peasants in 
Dalarne, taking their horses and oxen from the plow, 
hitching their pregnant wives to hay -loads, and hor- 
ribly maiming all who dared to complain. Engel- 
brekt went twice to Denmark and asked the king to 
remove this malefactor, but was the first time put 
off with promises and the second time bluntly re- 
buffed. He then placed himself at the head of a 
rebellion, which spread from Dalarne over the whole 
kingdom. In Norway a similar, though less for- 



NORWA V DURING THE KALMAR UNION. 473 

midable, revolt broke out under Amund Sigurdsson 
Bolt (1436), who likewise sought to obtain redress 
against the Danish magistrates. The king, however, 
who saw his advantage in allowing considerable lati- 
tude to his creatures, wearied of the eternal com- 
plaints, and, carrying with him whatever money was 
left in the treasury, took up his residence in a fortified 
castle on the island of Gottland (1438). He was 
now formally deposed both in Denmark and Sweden, 
while in Norway the regent, or governor, Sigurd 
Jonsson, continued for a while to conduct the gov- 
ernment in his name. When it became generally 
known, however, that the king had become a pirate, 
the Norwegians, too, revoked their allegiance (1442). 
For ten years Erik lived in his castle in Gottland, 
supporting himself by piracy, but was finally driven 
away. He then returned to Pomerania, where he 
died in 1459. 

During the reign of this unworthy king, the city 
of Bergen was twice sacked and partly burned by the 
Vitalie Brethren, who murdered the citizens, plun- 
dered the churches and the episcopal residence, and 
carried away a rich booty. 

With the tenacious fidelity peculiar to their race, 
the Norwegians adhered to the cause of Erik, even 
after he himself had abandoned it. They had, how- 
ever, no choice but to recognize as his successor his 
nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, who had already 
been proclaimed king in Denmark and Sweden. 
In the latter country Charles Knutsson Peasant 
(Bonde), who, after the murder of Engelbrekt, had 
become the leader of the rebellion, and later regent, 



474 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

had vainly endeavored to break the Union. The 
clergy made common cause with Christopher, and 
were instrumental in securing his election. 

Christopher was a jolly and good-natured man, who 
had no aptitude for affairs of state. When the 
Swedes complained of the piracy of Erik of Pome- 
rania, he answered merrily : '' Our uncle is sitting on 
a rock ; he, too, must earn his living." 

He deserves, however, as far as Norway was con- 
cerned, the credit of good intentions. He made an 
effort, though a futile one, to deprive the Hanseatic 
cities of their monopoly of trade, by giving equal 
privileges to the citizens of Amsterdam. The League 
was then less formidable than it had been, owing to 
the successful rivalry of the Dutch in other markets. 
It is difficult to say what the issue of the struggle 
would have been, if Christopher had lived. Death 
overtook him in izj48, when he was but thirty-two 
years old. 




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CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 

It has been said that, during the union with Den- 
mark, Norway had no history, and this is partly true. 
The history of the Oldenborg kings, with their wars, 
and court intrigues and mistresses, is in no sense thq 
history of Norway. Nor was the social development 
of Norway parallel with that of Denmark, during the 
reign of these kings. Though oppressed and politi- 
cally powerless, the remoter kingdom escaped the 
utter misery and degradation which overtook its op- 
pressor. The Danish nobility, though, like hungry 
wolves, they consumed the people's substance, did 
not succeed in reducing the Norse peasantry to serf- 
dom, as they did their own. The so-called Voriicd- 
skab ^ in Denmark was but another name for serfdom. 
The nobles, who held the land, in a hundred ways 
oppressed and maltreated their peasants ; they could 
sell, though they were not at liberty to kill them. 
Denmark, being an elective and not an hereditary 
kingdom, afforded the nobility opportunities for con- 
tinually strengthening their position, by exacting an 
increase of their privileges of each candidate for the 

* Prof. J. E, Sars : " Norge under Foreningen med Danmark." 

and i86i. 

475 



476 THE ST OR Y OF NOR WA K. 

throne, before consenting to elect him. This con- 
tract or charter granted by the kings to the nobles 
(Haandfestning) became a terrible instrument for the 
oppression of those estates which were either unrep- 
resented or without influence in the Royal Council. 
From having been a body, subordinate to the king, 
the council gradually became co-ordinate with him, 
and at last his superior. From this state of things 
it followed that the king needed some counterbal- 
ancing support against its overweening influence, and 
this support he sought in Norway. Here the elec- 
tion was a mere form, the succession being based upon 
hereditary right. The king could, if he was minded 
to redress the grievances of the people, rely upon 
their loyalty. Even if he was deaf to their com- 
plaints, they were disposed to excuse him, and hold 
his councillors responsible for his shortcomings. But, 
as a rule, the kings of the house of Oldenborg did 
pay more attention to the complaints of their Norse 
subjects than to those of their own, and they did 
this — first, because it was important to them to pre- 
serve the loyalty of the Norsemen ; secondly, because 
the Norsemen, if their petitions were unheeded, stood 
ready to take up arms. They knew their rights from 
of old, and a continued infringement of them, on the 
part of the foreign officials, made sooner or later the 
war-arrow fly from farm to farm ; and the king was 
confronted with an armed rebellion. Again and again 
the obnoxious magistrates, who had imagined that 
these sturdy mountaineers were as meek and long- 
suffering as their Danish brethren, were mercilessly 
beaten, maimed, or killed. Repeatedly the govern- 



THE UNION WITH DENMARK. ^77 

ment was forced to concede to rebels what they had 
not yielded to supplicants. Unpopular laws were 
revoked, oppressive burdens removed, and promises 
made of improved administration. 

And yet, in spite of these ameliorating circum- 
stances, Norway's condition during the Danish rule 
was miserable. The revenues of the country were 
spent in Copenhagen, and the people were heavily 
taxed to support a foreign court and a hungry brood 
of foreign officials, whose chief interest was to fill their 
own pockets. Danish nobles married into the great 
Norwegian families, and secured, by bribery and in- 
trigue in Copenhagen, a virtual franchise for unlim- 
ited ill-doing. Great estates were accumulated in the 
hands of men like Vincent Lunge, Hartvig Krum- 
medike, and Hannibal Sehested, and the courts were 
prostituted to favor the land-grabbing schemes of 
noble adventurers. The public spirit which, in times 
of old, had jealously watched over the Interests of the 
realm, had already been weakened by the incipient 
despotism of the last national kings ; and what 
there was left of it now gradually expired. A most 
striking proof of this is the fact that when, in 1537, 
Norway lost the last vestige of her independence, 
being declared to be a province of Denmark, the 
decree was accepted without protest, and caused no 
perceptible excitement. So gradually had the change 
taken place, that no one was surprised. The same 
peasants who boldly resented any encroachment upon 
their personal rights and killed the magistrate who 
overtaxed them, heard without a murmur of the ex- 
tinction of their nationality. It has been surmised. 



47^ THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

as a cause of their lethargy, that they did not hear of 
it^ — at least, not simultaneously, but gradually and 
casually, in the course of years ; and it is not improb- 
able that the imperfect means of communication 
was responsible for their apparent acquiescence. 

No attempt will be made in the following pages 
to relate the history of Denmark, except in so far as 
it directly affected that of Norway, and the plan of 
the present work excludes any but the most general 
characterization of the social conditions. The story 
of the Union will, therefore, be disproportionately 
short. 

The death of Christopher of Bavaria afforded the 
Swedes an opportunity to assert again their inde- 
pendence. The common hatred of the Danes en- 
abled the hostile estates to forget their differences 
and to unite in electing Charles Knutsson Peasant 
king of Sweden. The Norsemen had a candidate 
for the throne of Norway in the regent, Sigurd 
Jonsson, a descendant of Agnes, the daughter of 
Haakon Longlegs, -but they failed to support him. 
One party desired to make common cause with Swe- 
den and elect Charles Knutsson, while another fa- 
vored Count Christian of Oldenborg, who had just 
been elected in Denmark. This latter party, 
supported by the Danish nobles, who already 
wielded a great influence, was victorious. King 
Christian I. (1450- 148 1) arrived in Norway in the 
summer of 1450, and was crowned in the cathedral 
of Drontheim. At a meeting of the Council of Re- 
gency in Bergen, it was resolved that Norway was to 
remain eternally united with Denmark under one 



THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 



479 



king, but that each kingdom should be free and the 
other's equal, and should be governed in accordance 
with its own laws and by native-born officials. 

Christian could not give up the thought of rees- 
tablishing the Kalmar Union, and he therefore 
waged war for several years with King Charles 
Knutsson. In 1452 the latter invaded Norway 




C HUT ^Ti^i\ru^ - 1 - 



and conquered Drontheim, but the commandant 
in Bergen, Sir Olaf Nilsson, again drove him back 
across the frontier. Soon internal dissensions in 
Sweden enabled Christian to defeat Charles and 
expel him from his country (1457); and, in 1458, 
the three kingdoms were thus again united. Chris- 
tian's extortions and shameless breaches of faith 



480 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

made him, however, soon so detested both among 
peasants and nobles, that a rebellion broke out ; 
Charles was recalled, and, though he did not at 
once become master of the situation, he succeeded 
in keeping the Danes at bay. He died as King of 
Sweden in 1470. When Christian during the fol- 
lowing year made an attempt to conquer Sweden, 
he was overwhelmingly beaten at Brunkeberg near 
Stockholm by the regent, Steen Sture the Elder. 

In Norway Christian broke his promises with the 
same cynical disregard as he did in Sweden. Instead 
of appointing native officials, he allowed the Danish 
nobles to plunder as of old, and made no effort to 
discipline them. The German merchants in Bergen 
also became constantly more insolent in their be- 
havior toward the citizens, whom they drove away 
from the wharves and treated like conquered people ; 
but Christian did not dare to restrain them in their 
violations of law and order, because he feared that 
the Hansa might avenge itself by interfering in his 
war with Sweden. Even when the Germans mur- 
dered Sir Olaf Nilsson, his friend. Bishop Thorleif, 
and sixty other citizens, and burned the cloister 
of Munkeliv, the king refrained from punishing 
them. 

Highly characteristic of the way the Danish kings 
regarded Norway was Christian's transaction with 
James HI. of Scotland. A marriage was arranged 
with the latter and Christian's daughter Margaret, 
and the dower was fixed at 60,000 gulden. As the 
Danish king was unable to pay this amount, he re- 
mitted the tribute due from Scotland for the He- 



THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 48 1 

brides, pawned the Orkneys for 50,000 gulden and 
the Shetland Isles for an additional amount. Thus 
Norway lost these ancient dependencies ; for it is 
needless to say that they were never redeemed. 

Christian I. was succeeded by his son Hans or Jo- 
hannes (1483-15 13). The Norsemen, who had now 
had a sufficient taste of Danish rule, were not 
anxious to be governed by him, and a rebellion 
broke out, which, however, was short-lived. The 
Danish nobles, who, by marrying Norwegian women, 
could obtain citizenship, had by this time secured a 
preponderating power in the Council of Regency, and 
had small difficulty in getting their king acknowl- 
edged. The Swedes resisted until the year 1497, 
when Hans defeated Steen Sture's army and was de- 
clared king of Sweden. Three years later, however, he 
suffered a terrible defeat in Ditmarsken (1500), whose 
inhabitants opened the dikes and called in the ocean 
as their ally. Four thousand Danes were here slain 
or drowned, and enormous treasures were lost. This 
was the signal for renewed risings both in Sweden 
and in Norway. The Norse knight. Sir Knut Alfs- 
son, of Giske, who derived his descent from the old 
royal house, united with the Swedes and defeated 
Duke Christian, the king's son, in Vestergotland. 
Then he invaded Norway and captured the fortresses 
Tunsberghus and Akershus ; but was besieged in the 
latter place by the Danes under Henrik Krumme- 
dike. Seeing small chance of taking the fortress, 
the Danish general invited Sir Knut to a conference, 
under safe-conduct, but foully slew him and threw 
his body into the water. The wretched king appa- 



482 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

rently approved of this treason, for instead of pun- 
ishing Sir Henrik, he heaped honors upon him, and 
declared the great possessions of the murdered man 
to be forfeited to the crown. 

Once more the Norsemen attempted to throw off 
the detested Danish yoke (1508), under the leader- 
ship of the peasant Herluf Hyttefad, but the country 
was already too divided between the foreign and the 
native interest to afford sufficient support for a suc- 
cessful rising. Duke Christian came with a Danish 
army and quelled the rebellion, and executed its 
leaders. He did not, however, satisfy himself with 
this. He was a believer in radical measures. In 
order to break the rebellious temper of the Norse- 
men, once for all, he captured and murdered as many 
of the representatives of the great Norse families, as 
he could lay hold of. With atrocious cruelty he 
raged in Norway until every trace of the rebellion 
seemed extinct. 

The Swedes were more fortunate in their resist- 
ance to this blood-thirsty tyrant. After the death 
of Steen Sture the Elder (1503), they elected Svante 
Nilsson Sture regent, and after his death, his son, 
Steen Sture the Younger. These brave and patriotic 
men conducted the government with wisdom and 
energy, and succeeded in maintaining themselves 
against the power of the Danes during the remainder 
of the reign of King Hans. 

Christian H. (1513-1523, d. 1559), was forced, on 
mounting the throne, to grant a charter to the no- 
bility, which nearly deprived him of all power. The 
rule of the nobles had by this time become so great a 



THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 483 

curse, both in Denmark and Norway, that any measure 
for its curtailment seemed justifiable. Their principle 
of government was that of hawks in a poultry-yard. 
Whatever the citizens undertook for their advance- 
ment was checked by the interference of the privi- 
leged classes ; commerce and industry were discour- 
aged, lest the bourgeoisie should gain power enough 
to assert itself. The peasantry were given absolutely 
into the barons' power, and their degradation was 
made complete by the so-called " right of neck and 
hand," which Christian II. granted as the price of 
his crown. By this concession the nobles acquired 
the right to sentence and punish their peasants at 
their own discretion, without the intercession of the 
courts. The king, however, felt the humiliation of 
this concession scarcely less than its victims. He 
determined to prepare himself for a life and death 
struggle with the nobility ; and with this in view 
strove to increase his power. He secured foreign 
alliances and married the w^ealthiest princess in 
Europe, Isabella, sister of the German Emperor 
Charles V. In order to reach that summit. of power 
from which he should be able to crush the refractory 
magnates he deemed it important to regain the 
crown of Sweden, and at Bogesund he defeated Steen 
Sture the Younger, who fell in the battle (1520). 
The latter had had a bitter enemy in the wily arch- 
bishop, Gustavus Trolle, who made common cause 
with Christian, and crowned him king of Sweden. 
The archbishop thought this a good chance to 
avenge himself upon his enemies, of Steen Sture's 
party, and at his instigation Christian executed fifty 



4^4 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

of the most eminent men in Sweden, among whom 
were two bishops, thirteen members of the Council 
of Regency, and many brave citizens. 

This was the notorious Carnage of Stockholm. 
Secure in the thought that the Swedes were now 
cowed into submission, Christian II. returned to 
Denmark ; but his dastardly deed had an unforeseen 
effect. A young nobleman, Gustavus Eriksson Wasa, 
whose father had been beheaded and who had him- 
self been captured by Christian, escaped from his 
prison and became the deliverer of his country. 
The common indignation against the tyrant united 
once more all warring factions ; the Danes were 
everywhere defeated, and Gustavus Wasa became 
first, regent, and later, king of Sweden (1523). From 
that time forth, the power of the Danes in Sweden 
was at an end. 

The failure of his plans abroad discredited Chris- 
tian II. at home. His overweening self-esteem and 
impetuosity led him to commit rash acts, whereby he 
gave his enemies an advantage. Also in inaugurating 
reforms, which would have been beneficial, if they 
could have been carried into effect, he failed to meas- 
ure the strength of the opposition which he would 
be sure to encounter. He issued a decree abolishing 
serfdom, encouraged commerce and industry, and 
hoped in the impending struggle to find support 
among the bourgeoisie and peasants, whose gratitude 
he had earned. Nor did he in this respect deceive 
himself. But long oppression had made the people 
timid, and their support was largely passive, and 
could not, without energetic leaders, be made to as- 



THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 485 

sert itself. The upper estates were yet too powerful. 
Christian had, by his devotion to Luther's teachings, 
also added the clergy to the number of his enemies, 
and by his championship of Dutch and native com- 
merce he had incensed the Hansa. His uncle, Duke 
Frederick, of Holstein, took advantage of his many 
blunders, made alluring promises to the nobility, 
allied himself with the Hansa and began a war 
against his nephew. Christian summoned an assem- 
bly of notables to meet him at Viborg, but the nobles 
of Jutland, fearing that he might repeat the Carnage 
of Stockholm, sent him a letter, revoking their alle- 
giance. Christian lost his courage, and instead of 
summoning the citizens to his support gathered all 
his treasures and fled to Holland (1523). 

Duke Frederick, of Holstein, now ascended the 
throne under the name of Frederick I. (i 524-1 533), 
and by the aid of the Danish nobleman, Vincentz 
Lunge, soon succeeded in gaining Norway. Sir Vin- 
centz, who was a highly-cultivated but rapacious and 
unscrupulous man, had married the daughter of the 
Norse knight. Sir Nils Henriksson, whose wife, Inger 
Ottesdatter, was related to the old royal house. This 
remarkable woman, commonly known as Mistress 
Inger of Oestraat, played a prominent role in her 
day, but, unhappily, threw the weight of her wealth 
and influence on the side of the oppressors. One of 
her daughters married the Danish nobleman Erik 
Ugerup, another Nils Lykke, and a fourth was be- 
trothed by her ambitious mother to a Swedish im- 
postor who pretended to be a son of Steen Sture 
and a candidate for the Swedish throne. 
( . 



486 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

The doctrines of Luther were at that time being 
zealously preached in Sweden and Denmark, and 
were favored by the king and the greater portion of 
the nobility. In Norway there was no effort made 
to introduce the Reformation, and the people there 
remained devoted to the Catholic faith. Christian 
II. saw in this circumstance a chance of regaining his 
lost throne. He had previously inclined toward Lu- 
ther, but he now declared himself the champion of 
the old faith, arrived in Norway with a fleet (1531), 
and gained a large number of adherents. But the 
same incapacity and imprudence, which had wrecked 
his fortunes before, again precipitated his downfall. 
In the critical moment, when resolution and courage 
were required. Christian, as usual, showed himself a 
poltroon. When the fortress of Akershus, which he 
was besieging, was relieved by the Ltibeckers, and a 
Danish fleet arrived under the command of Knut 
Gyldenstjerne, he began to despair and finally betook 
himself to Denmark under safe-conduct, in order to 
negotiate with his uncle. On arriving there he was 
unceremoniously thrown into prison. Frederick I., 
although he had pledged his royal honor, at the re- 
quest of the nobility, broke his promise and Chris- 
tian was held a prisoner until the day of his death 

(1559)- 

The Norsemen were severely punished for their 

alliance with the deposed king, although Frederick 

I. had promised them immunity, on condition of 

their returning to their allegiance. 

At the death of Frederick I. an interregnum of 

four years occurred (1533-1 537), before a successor 



THE UNION WITH DENMARK. 48/ 

was chosen. It was the religious question which 
had divided Denmark into two hostile camps. 
Christian, the oldest son of the late king, was devoted 
to Protestanism, while Hans, the younger, had been 
brought up in the Catholic faith. The nobles, 
accordingly, favored the former, and the clergy the 
latter, while the lower estates desired to reinstate 
Christian II. in the possession of his throne. In 
Norway there were but two parties, one headed by 
Vincentz Lunge, favoring Duke Christian, and a 
Catholic party, which pinned its hopes upon the 
imprisoned king. A sudden show of strength was 
imparted to the latter's faction, when the Liibeck- 
ers took up his cause, and their general, Count 
Christopher of Oldenborg, invaded Denmark, and 
gave the peasantry a chance to avenge themselves 
upon their oppressors. This opportunity was eagerly 
embraced ; castles were sacked and destroyed, noble- 
men murdered, and the wildest atrocities committed. 
For a while civil war raged in Denmark with all its 
horrors, and in the presence of this calamity the 
opposing parties buried their differences and elected 
Christian III. king (i 537-1 559). By the aid of King 
Gustavus in Sweden he succeeded in defeating and 
expelling Count Christopher, after whom this war is 
called the Count's Feud. The Norwegians were not 
disposed to recognize the validity of King Christian's 
election, concerning which they had not been consult- 
ed ; and when, after the capitulation of Count 
Christopher, the cause of Christian II. seemed hope- 
lessly lost, they declared in favor of his son-in-law. 
Count Palatine Frederick, whose candidacy was 



488 THE STORY OF NORWAY, 

supported by the German Emperor. The Danish 
nobles, headed by Vincentz Lunge, were, of course, 
adherents of Christian III., while the archbishop, 
Olaf Engelbrektsson, was the leader of the opposi- 
tion. At a meeting in Bergen, called for the purpose 
of electing a king, the people grew furious at the 
sight of the Danish magnates, attacked them and 
murdered Sir Vincentz Lunge. Many others were 
imprisoned and otherwise maltreated. If the Count 
Palatine had now arrived in Norway and supported 
his adherents, there might have been a chance of his 
success. But unhappily he lacked money and was 
not effectually aided by the emperor. The arch- 
bishop had therefore no choice but to offer his alle- 
giance to Christian III. on condition of his respecting 
the ancient liberties of the land. But the Danish 
King, though he seemingly acquiesced, had no. inten- 
tion of granting such easy terms. He sailed to Nor- 
way with his fleet (1537), and although he met with 
no opposition, he seemed to think that he had con- 
quered the country and had the right to do with it 
as he chose. He abolished the Norwegian Council 
of Regency and henceforth administered the govern- 
ment through a viceroy and a chancellor, both of 
whom were Danes. The last vestige of Norwegian 
independence was thus lost, and Norway became a 
province of Denmark. 

Archbishop Olaf, without awaiting the king's 
arrival, fled to Holland, taking with him the treas- 
ures of the cathedral, and died in exile. 




CHAPTER XXXV. 

NORWAY AS A PROVINCE OF DENMARK 
(1537-1814). 

During the reign of Christian III. the Lutheran 
faith was introduced into Denmark, and its introduc- 
tion into Norway followed as a matter of course. 
The new Danish ecclesiastical law, called the Ordi- 
nance, was also made to apply to the provinces. The 
landed estates which had belonged to the Church 
were confiscated by the crown or distributed among 
royal favorites. In fact, the plunder of churches 
and monasteries was the only evidence of religious 
zeal which the Danes exhibited in Norway. The 
Catholic bishops were removed ; but many of 
the priests were allowed to remain, as Lutheran pas- 
tors were hard to obtain and were needed at home. 
Gradually, however, the change took place ; and 
everywhere aroused discontent among the peasantry. 
Many parishes were left, for long periods, without any 
kind of religious teaching, and when Lutheran pastors 
were sent up from Denmark, they were usually ignor- 
ant or vicious men who could not be used at home- 
Ex-soldiers, ex-sailors, bankrupt traders, and all sorts 
of vagabonds, who were in some way disqualified for 
making a living, were thought to be good enough to 

489 



490 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

preach the word of God in Norway. The majority 
of them were utterly destitute of theological training, 
and it is said that there were some who could not even 
read. No one, then, ought to wonder at the reception 
they received from their parishioners. Some of them 
were killed, others driven away and horribly beaten. 
At last physical strength became the prime requisite 
for holding a pastorate in the Norse mountain val- 
leys, and the surest road to popularity for a parson 
was to thrash the refractory members of his congre- 
gation. That inspired respect and inclined the rest 
more favorably toward his preaching. Great credit 
deserves the first Lutheran bishop in Bergen, Gjeble 
Pedersson, for his efforts to educate a native Protes- 
tant clergy. The Danish language, however, re- 
mained the language of the Norwegian church ; all 
religious instruction was imparted in it, and at the 
present day, all who lay claim to culture in Norway 
speak Danish. 

The depredations committed by the Danish nobles, 
during the reign of Christain III., defy description. 
It was the darkest period in the history of Norway, 
and, as far as the people were concerned, very nearly 
the darkest, too, in the history of Denmark. The 
power of the nobles reached such a height that the 
king himself was merely the tool of their will and was 
used by them, as an instrument for the most cruel 
and heartless oppression. 

The discomfiture of the Liibeckers in the Count's 
Feud was the first serious check which the Hansa 
received in the North, and it never regained its former 
power. The Danish nobleman, Christopher Valken- 




BELT WRESTLING, A MODE OF SETTLING DIFFERENCES FORMERLY IN VOGUE IN 
NORWAY, DESCRIBED IN BAYARD TAYLOR'S "LARS." 



492 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

dorf, who was governor {Lensherre) in Bergen, suc- 
ceeded in destroying the monopoly of the Germans 
in the fish trade, which now fell into the hands of 
native merchants. 

Christian III. was succeeded by his son Frederick 
11.(1559-1588), a vain and worthless man, whose fond- 
ness for drink shortened his life. He waged a long and 
costly war with Sweden about the right to carry the 
Swedish " three crowns " in the Danish coat-of-arms. 
The Norwegians, although their sympathies were at 
the outset with the Swedes, suffered greatly from the 
inroads of hostile armies, which burned cities and 
ravaged the land. Sweden, regarding Norway 
merely as a Danish province, thought to injure its 
foe, by destroying whatever belonged to him or 
acknowledged his sway. Thus the cathedral of 
Hamar was burned ; the fertile districts of Aker were 
harried, and the city of Drontheim was taken. The 
Danes burned Oslo in order to prevent it from fall- 
ing into the hands of the Swedes. 

Two Danish governors, Ludwig and Erik Munk, 
became notorious for their unheard of cruelties and 
extortions. The peasants sent repeated com- 
plaints to the king and threatened rebellion. At last 
Erik Munk was sentenced to return all taxes which 
he had illegally collected, and to restore to a peasant 
his property, of which he had unlawfully taken pos- 
session. Later he was deprived of his office, and 
committed suicide while in prison. 

The city of Frederickstad, which was forced into 
existence, after the burning of the ancient Sarpsborg, 
bears the name of Frederick II. 



u 



III ' 




494 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Christian IV. (1588-1648) had not inherited his 
father's infirmities. He was a man of many excel- 
lent qualities; desirous of furthering the welfare of 
his subjects, but crippled in his efforts by the opposi- 
tion of the arrogant nobility. What particularly 
deserves notice was his good disposition toward the 
Norsemen. Unlike his predecessors, he paid frequent 
visits to their country, once even penetrating within 
the Arctic Circle. He listened to the complaints of 
the people, and punished with fines and imprison- 
ment the Danish officials who ventured to exceed 
their rights. The old law of Magnus Law-Mender 
which, on account of the change of the language, 
was now hard to comprehend, he abolished, and 
elaborated, in its stead, a Norse law, some regula- 
tions of which are yet in force. Also the ecclesiasti- 
cal law or Ordinance was altered and adapted to the 
needs of the country. The present capital of Nor- 
way, Christiania, was founded by him, as also the 
city of Christiansand. The discovery of silver at 
Kongsberg, and of copper at Roraas, gave an im- 
petus to the mining industries of the country, and 
thereby started the growth of two small towns. 

By his kindness, his love of justice, and his in- 
terest in their affairs, Christian IV. won the hearts of 
the Norsemen, as no king of the house of Oldenborg, 
before or since. Sometimes he dropped in at a 
peasant's wedding, and drank the health^of the bride ; 
watched the games upon the German wharf in Bergen, 
and attended a party at the apothecary's where the 
jolly guests smashed all the windows. He had a 
pair of eyes which nothing escaped ; and an active 



NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 495 

and alert mind which turned his observations to good 
account. All economical questions interested him ; 
whatever he undertook, he supervised with the most 
minute care every detail of its execution. With level 
and square in his pocket he walked about testing the 
soundness of the work of his carpenters, masons, and 
architects. 

Three great wars, two of which concerned Norway, 
disturbed the reign of Christian IV. The first, the 
so-called Kalmar War (1511-1513), occasioned an 
invasion of Scotch mercenaries hired by the king of 
Sweden. These came, however, to grief at Kringen 
in Guldbrandsdale, where the peasants attacked 
them, and at the first shot killed their commander. 
Colonel Sinclair. Of the entire force, numbering 
nine hundred, not one man, it is said, escaped. More 
fortunate was Colonel Monnikhofen, who landed with 
eight hundred Dutch mercenaries in Sondmore, and 
made his way, ravaging and plundering, across the 
frontier. The cause of this war was the assumption, 
on the part of the Swedish king,Charles IX., of the title 
of King of the Lapps, and his claim to the Norwegian 
province of Finmark. Charles died during the hos- 
tilities, and his son Gustavus Adolphus made peace 
at Knaerod, abandoning both the claim and the 
title. 

The participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty 
Years' War, as the ally of the oppressed German 
Protestants, brought him no glory. After his defeat 
by Tilly at Lutter and Barenberge, the imperial 
armies overran Sleswick and Jutland, and at the Peace 
of Liibeck (1629), Christian had to promise never- 



49^ THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

more to meddle in German politics. After this 
humiliation, he could not see, without alarm, the 
progress of the Swedes in Germany ; and could not 
refrain from placing obstacles in their way. The 
war was being continued, after the death of Gustavus 
Adolphus, by able generals and diplomats, who 
resolved to anticipate the Danish king in his efforts 
to thwart them. Before Christian suspected that 
his intentions were revealed, General Torstenson 
crossed the southern frontier, invaded Holstein, and 
advanced into Jutland (1643). The Danes were 
utterly unable to resist the conquering host, and 
though they hotly contested two naval battles, their 
inability to cope with the Swedes soon became ap- 
parent. Peace was, therefore, concluded at Brom- 
sebro ; and Norway was made to pay the costs of 
Danish incapacity and miscalculation. The two 
great Norse provinces Jemteland and Herjedale 
were ceded to Sweden ; as also the island of Gott- 
land, which had latterly belonged to Denmark 

(1647). 

In Norway this war was named Hannibal's Feud, 
after the viceroy Hannibal Sehested, a son-in-law of 
the king, who, with the aid of the brave parson, 
Kjeld Stub, guarded the frontier. 

One might have supposed that the nobles, at the 
death of Christian IV. would have rested content 
with the excessive privileges which they already 
possessed, and allowed his son Frederick HI. (1648- 
1670) to ascend the throne, without stripping him- 
self of the last remnant of his power. But as long 
as there was any thing left to grab, it seemed worth 





FREDERICK III., KING OF DENMARK AND NORWAY. 



49^ THE STORY OF NOF^WAY. 

grabbing. Frederick III. was, therefore, compelled 
to grant a more humiliating charter than any of his 
predecessors, and would have been, if he had long 
acquiesced in the agreement, a mere shadow king. 
The arrogance and greed of the nobles, fostered by 
long security in aggression, became, however, the 
cause of their downfall. The Royal Council, which 
was the real governing power in the state, had the 
imprudence to declare war against Sweden, on the 
strength of a rumor, that the Swedish king, Charles 
X. Gustavus, had suffered an overwhelming defeat 
in Poland. This rumor proved to be false, and 
Charles conquered in a short time both Jutland and 
Funen, and threatened Copenhagen. Denmark was 
completely at his mercy, and the Council was com- 
pelled to buy peace at Roskilde (1658) by the ces- 
sion of Skaane, Halland, Blekinge, Bornholm, and 
the Norwegian provinces, Viken and Drontheim. 
And yet in Norway the only success of the war had 
been won, the Norwegian general Bjelke having con- 
quered Jemteland. It seemed as if Charles Gustavus, 
after having obtained these enormous advantages, 
regretted that he had not made an end of Denmark 
altogether. He hesitated to quit Danish territory, 
renewed the war, and was, by aid of the Dutch and 
Austrians, who feared his overweening power, de- 
feated at Nyborg and repulsed at Copenhagen. In 
Norway the Tronders revolted successfully against 
the Swedish rule, and the Bornholmers likewise 
drove away the invaders. At the Peace of Copenha- 
gen (1660), Charles Gustavus was forced to relinquish 
his hold upon these provinces, while keeping his 
other conquests. 



NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 499 

It was plain that it was chiefly the nobles com- 
posing the Royal Council who were responsible for 
the degradation which these wars had brought upon 
Denmark. And yet, although they were in posses- 
sion of great wealth, gained by pillaging the lower 
estates, they refused to bear any share of the public 
burdens. The condition of the country was now so 
desperate and the misery so great that but a breath 
was needed to kindle the smouldering indignation 
into flame. The public debt had reached an enor- 
mous amount, and there was no prospect of paying 
it without increased taxatiom The king then sum- 
moned a diet to meet him at Copenhagen, and in- 
vited representatives of the clergy and the bour- 
geoisie to participate in its deliberations. These 
entered into an alliance with him against the nobles, 
and the latter, fearing an outbreak of violence, did 
not at first dare offer any resistance. When they 
picked up their courage again, the citizens of Copen- 
hagen locked the gates and compelled them to come 
to terms. It was then resolved that Denmark should 
henceforth be an hereditary kingdom, and that the 
Royal Council should be abolished. All fiefs were 
revoked and a new system of administration was 
introduced, with royal officials, responsible to the 
king. It was agreed that a constitution should be 
adopted, and its elaboration was, very unwisely, en- 
trusted to the king. Frederick III. was thus master 
of the situation, and as the matter seemed to have 
been left to his discretion, he preferred to rule with- 
out any constitution. The so-called Royal Law, which 
he endeavored to pass off as such, was rather in- 



500 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

tended to make his power secure, than to subject it 
to limitations. Thus absolutism pure and simple was 
introduced into Denmark (1660). The Danes had 
jumped from the frying-pan into the fire; and yet, 
though their condition was not enviable, there was a 
relief in having one master Instead of many. 

In Norway the effects of absolutism were chiefly 
perceptible in placing the country more nearly upon 
an equal footing with Denmark, and in producing a 
somewhat Improved administration. The nobles 
continued to hold many lucrative offices, but the 
king was able to exercise a more restraining influence 
over them now that his authority was absolute. The 
fiefs were changed into counties (aniter) and adminis- 
tered by royal officials with well-defined functions. 
A chance was presented to citizens to rise in the ser- 
vice of the state, and was improved by several able 
Norsemen, among whom the naval hero, Kort Adeler, 
was preeminent. After an honorable career in Dutch 
and Venetian service, against the Turks, he was made 
admiral in the Danish Navy, and greatly increased its 
efficiency. 

Frederick III. visited Norway but once. The city 
of Frederickshald bears his name. 

Although the royal revenues had been quintupled 
by the revocation of the fiefs, Frederick's son. Chris- 
tian V. (1670-1699), was always in want of money. 
He spent his time in all sorts of costly amusements, 
hoping to rival the splendor of the French king, 
Louis XIV., whom he had taken for his model. In 
order to counteract the influence of the old Danish 
nobility, which, on account of Its wealth, was yet 



JVOJ^PVAV AS A PROVINCE. 50I 

formidable, Christian V. created a new court nobility 
of counts and barons, most of whom were Germans. 
German became the language of the court, and lands 
and lucrative offices were given away to German 
favorites. In order to procure money wherewith to 
imitate the glittering vices of Versailles, Christian 
V. sold his subjects, both Norwegians and Danes, as 
mercenaries for foreign service. He had an able ad- 
viser in his chancellor, Griffenfeld, who rose from 
poverty to the highest position, in order as suddenly 
to be plunged into misery. His enemies aroused the 
fickle king's suspicions as to his loyalty ; and he was 
condemned to death, but his sentence, on the scaf- 
fold, was commuted to imprisonment for life. " Oh 
mercy more cruel than death," he exclaimed. Tow- 
ard the end of his life he was, however, pardoned. 

Christian V. had a new code of laws elaborated for 
Norway, which is yet partly in force. He waged a 
futile war with Sweden which cost blood and treas- 
ure, but brought no advantage to either of the com- 
batants. 

Frederick IV. (1699-1730) ascended the throne 
like his father, by right of inheritance, but did not 
in other respects follow in his footsteps. He was a 
shrewd, but ignorant man ; penurious, industrious, 
and heartless. By his feud with the Duke of Hol- 
stein, he came into collision with the latter's brother- 
in-law, Charles XII., of Sweden, and after a brief and 
unsuccessful campaign, made peace on unfavorable 
terms at Travendal (1700). When, however, Charles 
XII., in 1709, lost the battle of Pultawa, in Russia, 
Frederick thought his opportunity had come for re- 



502 THE STOR V OF NOR WA Y. 

gaining what he had lost ; wherefore he entered into 
an alliance with Russia and Poland and began the 
Great Northern War (i 709-1 720). Sixteen thousand 
Danish troops invaded Skaane, but were beaten by 
the Swedish general, Magnus Stenbock (1710). In 
the naval battle of Kjogebugt, the Norseman, Ivar 
Hvitfeldt, who commanded the ship Dannebrog, made 
a valiant attack upon the Swedish fleet. His ship, 
however, took fire, and although he might have 
saved himself by beaching it, such a course would 
have endangered the rest of the Danish fleet, which 
lay nearer shore. Hvitfeldt, therefore stayed where 
he was, sending volley after volley against the Swedes, 
while death was staring him in the face. When the 
fire reached the powder magazine, he, with five hun- 
dred men, was blown into the air. 

On his return to Sweden in 171 5 Charles at- 
tempted to conquer Norway and penetrated by 
three different routes into the country. He him- 
self commanded the division which entered Holand 
(17 1 6). The Norwegian Colonel Kruse met him 
with 200 men, who fought with such heroism, that 
Charles, brave as he was himself, was filled with 
admiration. 

'' Has my brother, King Frederick, many such 
officers as thou?" he asked the colonel, as he lay 
wounded at his feet. 

"Oh, yes," answered Kruse, ''he has plenty of 
them, and I am far from being among the ablest." 

In his blindness, Frederick had, in order to raise 
money, hired out a large number of the country's 
defenders as mercenaries, leaving only a wretched 



NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 503 

little, half-naked and half-starved force of 6,000 men 
under General Liitzow. Charles with his well-drilled 
troops expected to make short work of such paltry 
opponents. But he failed to take account of the 
Norsemen's temper. Every man, young and old- 
nay, many a woman, too, was ready to defend hearth 
and home against the foe. Colonel Lowen, whom 
he had sent with 600 men to destroy the silver mines 
of Kongsberg, was captured with 160 Swedes, by 
the Norsemen at the parsonage in Ringerike, after 
having been hoodwinked by the parson's wife, 
the intrepid and quick-witted Anna Kolbjorns- 
datter. When, suspecting that he was trapped, 
Lowen put the pistol to her head, she asked, 
coolly : 

''Do you serve your king in order to kill old 
women? " 

Charles captured Christiania, but could accomplish 
nothing against the fortress of Akershus. The citi- 
zens of Frederickshald burned their town, so that it 
might not afford a shelter for the Swedes against the 
cannon of the fortress Fredricksteen. Here the two 
brave and patriotic brothers, Peter and Hans Kol- 
bjornsson, half-brothers of Anna, distinguished them- 
selves, and, with their hardy volunteers, harassed the 
enemy incessantly. It became evident to Charles 
that he could not take the Norse fortresses without 
artillery, and he expected a convoy from home 
with field-cannon and other munitions of war. 
But this expectation, too, failed. His fleet was 
destroyed in Dynekilen by a daring deed of Tor- 
denskjold, the greatest naval hero that Norway has 



504 ' THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

produced. Tordenskjold, having learned from some 
fishermen that the Swedish admiral was to have a 
banquet on board, that night, concluded that the 
officers would scarcely be in condition for fighting, 
after having risen from the table. He cried to his 
lieutenant, Peter Grib : 

'' I hear that the Swedish admiral is going to have 
a carousal on his fleet. Would it not be advisable 
if we went with our ships and became his guests, 
though unbidden? The pilot says we have wind." 

Under a rattling fire from the shore batteries Tor- 
denskjold ran into Dynekilen and attacked the hos- 
tile fleet. He was right in his supposition that the 
enemy had imbibed heavily. But the danger so- 
bered them. After three hours of heavy cannonad- 
ing, the Swedish admiral capitulated with 44 ships 
and 60 cannon. When this intelligence reached the 
king, he began his retreat from Norway. But he 
could not give up the thought of conquering a 
country which was so poorly equipped for defence. 
In 1718 he sent General Armfelt with 14,000 men 
against Drontheim and moved, himself, against Fred- 
ricksteen with 22,000. The outer redoubt was 
stormed and taken and trenches were dug toward 
the main fortress. In one of these trenches Charles 
was standing, when he was hit in the head by a 
bullet from the fortress and fell dead. Armfelt, on 
receiving this intelligence, immediately retreated to- 
ward the frontier, but lost a great number of men, 
who froze and starved to death upon the mountains. 
Thus the war was at an end, and peace was con- 
cluded in Fredensborg (1720). 




THE CAPERCAILZIE TN NORWAY, 



5o6 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

The fortitude of the Norsemen had saved Den- 
mark from a great danger. Frederick IV. rewarded 
their staunchness and intrepidity by subjecting them 
to further pillaging. In order to raise money for 
Danish needs, he sold all the churches of Norway to 
private parties, contending that, if the people owned 
them, they must have deeds and papers proving their 
right of property. By this miserable quibble, he 
pretended to give a show of legality to his spolia- 
tions. The trade with Finmark he sold to three citi- 
zens of Copenhagen, who interpreted their monopoly 
as a license for unlimited extortion. The population 
sank into misery and degradation. 

During the reign of Frederick IV. lived the Norse- 
man Ludvig Holberg, who was born in Bergen, 1684. 
He spent his life, however, in Denmark, writing a 
great number of excellent comedies, in Moliere's style, 
mock-heroic poems, satires and historical works. 
The life of the first half of the eighteenth century is 
vividly portrayed and satirized in his writings. 

Christian VI. (i 730-1 746) was an extreme pietist, 
and surrounded himself with Germans who sympa- 
pathized with his morbid and lugubrious religion. 
He was lavish in his expenditures, built costly pal- 
aces, and introduced a rigid ceremonial at his court. 
The one meritorious act of his reign was the issue of 
a decree ordering confirmation in the Lutheran faith, 
and thus indirectly compelling all classes of the 
people to learn to read. Well-meant, but misdirected, 
were his efforts to encourage trade and manufactures, 
and positively disastrous was his decree forbidding 
the inhabitants of southern Norway to import grain 
from any other country than Denmark. 




CARVED I.INTEL, STABBUR, OR STORE-HOUSE ■ CARVED BEER-MUGS. 



5o8 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

Frederick V. (1746-1766) was a man of kindly na- 
ture, but limited intelligence. He opened the thea- 
tres, which his father had closed, and abolished the 
many arduous regulations for the keeping of the Sab- 
bath. He came within a hair of having war with 
Russia, and was only saved by the murder of the 
emperor, Peter HI. But the great preparations he 
had made necessitated an increase of taxation, which 
especially fell heavily upon the poor Norse peasants. 
In Bergen, the " extra-tax " led to a revolt. The pea- 
sants broke into the city, and insulted and maltreated 
the magistrates, whereupon the tax was abolished. 
The Norwegian Military Academy in Christiania was 
founded during the reign of this king, as also the 
Academy of Sciences in Drontheim. 

Christian VH. (i 766-1 808) succeeded to the throne 
at the age of seventeen, and wasted his youth in the 
wildest dissipation. His vitality was accordingly 
used up before he reached mature manhood, and in- 
sanity followed. During a journey abroad, he be- 
came much attached to his body physician, a Ger- 
man, named Struensee, and, after his return, made 
him prime-minister, and left the government entirely 
in his hands. Struensee was a man of great ability, 
penetrated with the Ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau, 
and rather headlong in the reforms which he Intro- 
duced. The nobles and the queen-dowager, Juliana 
Maria, hated him, and, by their Influence, the king 
was Induced to sign an order for his arrest. From 
the prison to the block the road was short. A favor- 
ite of the queen-dowager, named Ove Guldberg, car- 
ried on the government during the next twelve years, 



NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 509 

and revoked all Struensee's liberal measures. He en- 
deavored to abolish the very name of Norseman, in- 
sisting that no such nationality existed, all being citi- 
zens of the Danish State. 

During the reign of the last three kings, Norway 
had, owing to the peace, steadily advanced in mater- 
ial prosperity. The population had, in one hundred 
years, nearly doubled, being, in 1767, 723,000; and 
the merchant marine had, since the destruction of 
the Hanseatic monopoly, grown from 50 to 1,150 
ships. A class of native officials, educated at the 
University of Copenhagen, began to replace the 
Danish, and, by the sale of the estates of the crown, 
the number of freeholders among the peasants was 
largely increased. 

As the insanity of the king made him unable to 
attend to the government, his son. Crown Prince 
Frederick, became, in 1784, the responsible regent, 
and made an excellent selection of a premier in 
Andreas Bernsdorff (i 784-1 797). This capable and 
enlightened man piloted Denmark and Norway 
safely through the stormy times of the French 
Revolution. In the latter country £our provincial 
superior courts were established, and a peculiar in- 
stitution called '' commissions of reconciliations," in- 
tended to prevent litigation. In 1800 Denmark 
had the imprudence to conclude a treaty of armed 
neutrality with Russia and Sweden, with a view to 
resisting the right, which England demanded, of 
searching the ships of non-combatants for munitions 
of war. It was the aim of England to cut France 
off from all commercial intercourse with the rest of 



5IO THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the world and, as munitions of war were regarded not 
only guns and powder, but grain and all kinds of 
provisions. The Norwegian and Danish merchant 
marines, which were then doing a great business as 
carriers, were injured by this arbitrary interpretation. 
The government was, however, not strong enough 
to bid defiance to England, and after the battle 
in Copenhagen harbor (April 2, 1801) Denmark 
was forced to retire from the *' armed neutrality." 
The crown prince, Frederick, seemed, however, to 
have a poor idea of the power of England, for his 
policy soon again began to show symptoms of friend- 
liness for the emperor of the French. According to 
a secret agreement between Napoleon and Alexan- 
der of Russia (1807) at the Peace of Tilsit, the 
former was to take possession of the Danish fleet, 
and by means of it dispute England's dominion over 
the sea. The English government soon got wind of 
this plan, and immediately demanded the temporary 
surrender of the Danish fleet, guaranteeing its return 
as soon as peace was reestablished. When this de- 
mand was refused, the English landed troops on See- 
land and surrounded Copenhagen, while from the sea 
side they bombarded the city for three days and a 
half (1807). The Danes then had no choice but to 
surrender their fleet, but, owing to their resistance, 
it was never returned. This second battle of Copen- 
hagen threw Denmark more completely into the 
arms of Napoleon, and when the emperor's star de- 
clined and set, his ally was left helpless at the mercy 
of his enemies. 

Owing to the isolation of Denmark during the 



512 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

war and the difficulty of maintaining communication, 
Norway was temporarily governed by a commission, 
or council of regency, under the presidency of Prince 
Christian August of Augustenborg. 

When Frederick VI. (1808-1814), at the death of 
his insane father, mounted the throne, the condition 
of his two countries was deplorable. His wrong- 
headed policy had placed him in a position which 
was wellnigh desperate. The war with England 
had put an embargo upon all commerce, and famine 
and misery were the result. Norway, which, with- 
out being consulted, had been dragged into this 
maze of difficulties, suffered from constant naval 
attacks, to which it was, by its long coast-line, par- 
ticularly exposed. The finances were in hopeless 
disorder. To add to the confusion, a war broke out 
with Sweden, which, in time, had seen its advantage 
in seeking an English alliance. General Armfelt 
once more invaded the country, but Christian 
August did not lose his courage. The Council of 
Regency unfolded a heroic activity in carrying out 
his measures for the defence of the land, and divi- 
sions of Norwegian troops beat the Swedes in three 
successive fights (Toverud, Trangen, and Preste- 
bakke). Simultaneously Sweden was attacked by 
Russia, which had guaranteed to enforce the stipula- 
tions of the Peace of Tilsit, one of which was the 
blockading of the Swedish ports against the English. 
But the obstinate king, Gustavus IV., would not 
give his consent to this measure, in consequence of 
which the Russians invaded Finland, and, after 
several hotly contested engagements, drove the 



NORWAY AS A PROVINCE. 5x3 

Swedes out. The result of these disasters was the 
dethronement of the king and the election of his 
brother, Charles XIII., as his successor. As the lat- 
ter was childless, he was induced to adopt the regent 
of Norway, Prince Christian August, as his heir, and 
there was thus a chance of the peaceful union of 
Norway and Sweden under an able and popular 
king. But, unhappily, this beloved prince died very 
soon after, at a review of troops in Skaane (1809). 
At the Peace of Frederickshamn, Sweden was obliged 
to cede Finland to Russia, but by the Treaty of Paris 
was guaranteed possession of Pomerania, on condi- 
tion of its adhering to Napoleon's so-called '* conti- 
nental system." This naturally involved war with 
England, which was the one unconquered and ir- 
reconcilable enemy of the emperor; but as long as 
Sweden refrained from actively aiding Napoleon, 
England, which had its hands full elsewhere, as- 
sumed an expectant attitude and exercised no hos- 
tilities. But this semi-neutrality was far from satis- 
fying Napoleon. Enraged by the indecision of 
Charles XIII., he again occupied Pomerania, thereby 
giving Sweden a pretext for openly siding with his 
enemies. Peace was concluded with England at 
Oerebro (18 12), and soon after Sweden joined the 
great European alliance, which had for its object the 
overthrow of Napoleon. 

This change of policy was, no doubt, to a Targe 
extent, due to Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince of 
Pontecorvo, who had risen from the ranks in Na- 
poleon's service, had become a field marshal, and 
after the death of Christian August, had been made 



514 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

* 

crown prince of Sweden (1812). At a meeting with 
Alexander of Russia at Aabo, he was promised Nor- 
way, as a reward for his adherence to the cause of 
the alHes ; and the same promise was later repeated 
by England. 

The condition of Norway, during this period, was 
aggravated by the continued blockading of her ports 
by the English. In 1812a famine broke out, and the 
people were obliged to grind birch bark into flour 
and bake it into bread. The depreciation of the 
Danish paper money swept away the savings of 
thousands of families, and demoralized all com- 
mercial relations. Everywhere the greatest discon- 
tent prevailed at the union with Denmark, which 
had brought the country to such a strait. The tardy 
grant of a charter for a Norwegian University (181 1) 
which had before been refused, caused a temporary 
enthusiasm, but did not allay the discontent. The 
political sense which seemed to have been dormant 
for centuries, began to awake again, and a feeling of 
independence and a desire for national self-assertion 
found expression in the Society for Norway's Welfare, 
(1810), in the liberal contributions to the University, 
and in a sudden patriotic ferment, which pervaded the 
land. The native ofificial class came to the front as 
the leaders and exponents of these political aspira- 
tions, and rendered important service by formulating 
the people's desires and leading them toward rational 
aims. To be disposed of, like chattels, by foreign 
powers, which had no sympathy with Norway's tra- 
ditions, nor interest in her welfare, was revolting to 
their self-respect, and amid all the insecurity, which 



NOR WAY AS A PRO VINCE. 5 I 5 

the various moves upon the foreign diplomatic chess- 
board produced, a stubborn determination to resist 
to the utmost asserted itself among the thinking 
classes of the people. 

As long, however, as Norway was a mere appen- 
dage of Denmark, it could not escape being involved 
in the consequences of King Frederick's policy. 
When, after Napoleon's disastrous campaign in Rus- 
sia, the allies demanded the surrender of Norway to 
Sweden, the king refused and sent his cousin. Prince 
Christian Frederick, to govern the country as vice- 
roy. But Napoleon's defeat at Leipsic and Berna- 
dotte's invasion of Holstein, at the head of a large 
army, compelled him to come to terms. At the 
Peace of Kiel, (January 14, 18 14) he ceded Norway 
to Sweden, and soon after released the Norsemen 
from their allegiance to him, giving up all claim upon 
their country for himself and his descendants. 





CHAPTER XXXVI. 

NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 

The indignation which the Peace of Kiel aroused 
in Norway was evidence that the Norsemen had awak- 
ened from their long hibernating torpor and meant to 
assert their rights. They were quite ready to give up 
their allegiance to Frederick VI., but contended that 
he had no right to dispose of it to any one else. Re- 
membering how their country had without its own con- 
sent, contrary to law and treaties, become a depen- 
dency of Denmark, they held that the sovereignty, 
which Frederick renounced, reverted to the people 
who were thus in position to bestow it upon whom 
they chose. The viceroy, Christian Frederick, finding 
this sentiment very general, refused to abide by the 
decision of the powers and summoned several repre- 
sentative men to meet him at Eidsvold (1814). It 
had been his first intention to claim the crown 
of Norway by hereditary right and to govern as 
absolute monarch. But yielding to the advice of 
Professor Sverdrup and other patriotic- men, he 
declared himself ready to accept the crown from 
the people and to govern in accordance with the 
constitution which the people should adopt. In or- 
der to explore the sentiment throughout the coun- 

516 



NOR WA Y RECO VERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 5^7 

try, the prince had travelled in the middle of winter 
across the Dovre Mountain to Drontheim, and there 
were many who believed that it had been his inten- 



PRINCE CHRISTIAN FREDERICK, VICEROY OF NORWAY ; LATER, KING 
OF DENMARK (CHRISTIAN VIII. )• 

tion to have himself crowned at once in the ancient 
city of kings. In Guldbrandsdale he stopped to 
read the inscription upon the monument, erected 



5 1 8 THE STOR Y OF NOR WA F. 

to commemorate the destruction of Sinclair and his 
Scottish mercenaries : 

" Woe to the Norsemen whose blood does not 
course more warmly through his veins when he 
looks upon this stone." 

''Are you, too," he asked the peasants who had 
come to see him, " like your forefathers, willing to 
sacrifice life and blood for your country ? " 

The result of the deliberations at Eidsvold was the 
summoning of a diet, consisting of representatives of 
the people from all parts of the country. The place 
of meeting was again Eidsvold, and the number of 
representatives was 1 12, most of whom were officials. 
A constitution, which was extremely liberal in its 
provisions, was adopted May 17, 18 14, and Prince 
Christian Frederick was elected king. Norway was 
declared to be a fi^ee and independent country, but 
there was a division of opinion as to whether It 
should seek a union with Sweden or maintain a 
king of its own. The so-called party of indepen- 
dence, which was led by Judge Falsen, Professor 
Sverdrup, and Captain Motzfeldt, largely outnum- 
bered the friends of Sweden, prominent among 
whom were Count Wedel- Jarlsberg, Chamberlain 
Peder Anker, Iron-master Jacob Aal, and the Rev. 
Nicolai Wergeland. The latter were not desirous 
of surrendering the liberty of the country, believing^ 
on the contrary, that liberty was securer in a union 
with a stronger power. The smallness of Norway 
and the inability of the people to maintain an army 
adequate for its defence would, in their opinion, ul- 
timately make the country the prey of any foreign 
power that chose to pick a quarrel with It. 



JVO/^IVJV RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 519 

The Norwegian constitution, which, sHghtly 
amended, is yet in force, provides that: 

1. Norway shall be a limited, hereditary, monarchy, 
independent and indivisible, whose ruler shall be 
called king. 

2. The people shall exercise the legislative power 
through their representatives. 

3. The people shall alone have the ri^ht to levy 
taxes through their representatives. 

4. The king shall have the right to declare war and 
to make peace. 

5. The king shall have the right of pardon. 

6. The judicial authority shall be separated from 
the executive and the legislative power. 

7. There shall be liberty of the press. 

8. The evangelical Lutheran religion shall be the 
religion of the state and of the king. 

9. No personal or hereditary privileges shall, in 
future, be granted to any one. 

10. Every male citizen, irrespective of birth, sta- 
tion, or property, shall be required, for a certain 
length of time, to carry arms in defence of his coun- 
try. 

The representatives at Eidsvold were not unaware 
that the step which they had taken involved war with 
Sweden. For Bcrnadotte would scarcely regard the 
resolutions of a deliberative assembly as an obstacle 
to the possession of the prize, which he had earned 
by assisting in the overthrow of Napoleon. In the 
meanwhile, it was a happy circumstance to the Norse- 
men, that this overthrow had not yet taken place, and 
that the emperor for several months kept the army 



520 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

of the allies busy, thereby preventing Bernadotte 
from turning his immediate attention to Norway. It 
was a surprise to him to find the Norsemen deter- 
mined to defend their rights, as he imagined that 
their long dependence upon Denmark had accus- 
tomed them to obedience and subordination. A 
letter which Charles XIII. had sent them, previous 
to the diet at Eidsvold, offering them a constitution 
and a Swedish viceroy, had been received with indig- 
nation, but after the surrender of Paris (March 31st) 
and the abdication of the emperor, the Napoleonic 
drama seemed preliminarily at an end, and there 
were no more foreign complications to prevent the 
Swedes from enforcing the paragraph in the treaty 
of Kiel, relating to Norway. The intelligence now 
arrived that the great powers had promised Berna- 
dotte to compel Norway to accept the treaty, and 
envoys were sent from the various courts, command- 
ing the Norsemen forthwith to submit themselves 
unconditionally to the king of Sweden. This the 
Norsemen refused to do, and soon after a Swedish 
army under Bernadotte crossed the frontier. The 
newly elected king now began to waver, and, being 
destitute of^ warlike spirit, he ordered the surrender of 
the fortress Fredericksteen to the Sweciish fleet, with- 
out having fired a shot in its defence. The Nor- 
wegian army, ill-provided though it was with food 
and ammunition, was eager for fight, but the faint- 
spirited king showed his generalship chiefly in re- 
treating. A second division of the Swedish army 
under Gahn was beaten in Lier by the Norwegians, 
under Colonel Krebs, and after a second assault at 



NOJ^IVAV RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 521 

Matrand was forced to retire across the frontier. 
It became obvious that, without bloodshed, the con- 
quest of the country was not to be accomphshed, 
and as the Swedes, after their German campaign, 
were no less desirous of peace than the Norsemen, 




CHARLES XIV. JOHN. (BERNADOTTE.) KING OF NORWAY AND 
SWEDEN. 

an armistice wes concluded at Moss (August 14, 
1 8 14), in accordance with the terms of which the 
king should summon an extraordinary Storthing or 
Parliament, for the negotiation of a permanent 
peace. This Storthmg, which met October 7th, 
accepted King Christian Frederick's renunciation of 



522 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

the Norwegian crown and elected Charles XIII. 
king, on condition of his recognizing the indepen- 
dence of Norway and governing it, in accordance with 
the constitution given at Eidsvold. These terms 
Bernadotte accepted, in behalf of the king of Swe- 
den (November 4th), and swore allegiance to the con- 
stitution. The Swedish troops then evacuated the 
country, and Christian Frederick returned to Den- 
mark, where, at the death of his cousin, he became 
king under the name of Christian VIII. The follow- 
ing year a convention was negotiated with Sweden, 
fixing the terms of the union {Rigsakten). The Bank 
of Norway was established in Drontheim, and a Su- 
preme Court in Christiania. 

To all appearances Norway had now regained her 
independence. Considering the desperate position 
in which the country was placed in 18 14, resisting 
single-handed the decree of the powers, there can be 
no doubt that the terms of the union were more 
favorable than there was reason to expect. For all 
that, there was one feature of it which was incom- 
patible with the idea of independence, and that was 
the presence in the capital of a Swedish viceroy 
{Statholder), representing the authority of the king. 
Bernadotte, who, at the death of Charles XII I. 
(1818), succeeded to the throne under the name of 
Charles XIV. John (18 18-1844), scarcely regarded, 
at first, the independence of Norway seriously, but 
rather allowed the Norsemen to deceive themselves 
with an illusion of liberty, as long as their illusion was 
harmless. But he showed plainly his irritation when 
he found that the Start king hegd^n to oppose his meas- 



JVO/^IVAV RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 523 

ures, and to insist upon a stricter interpretation of the 
constitution. One of the first causes of contention 
was the question of the payment by Norway of a 
part of the Danish pubHc debt which Charles John 
had guaranteed in the treaty of Kiel. The Storthing 
was of opinion that, as Norway had never accepted 
the treaty of Kiel, it could not be bound by any of 
its stipulations. A compromise was finally effected 
by which the king renounced his civil list from Nor- 
way for ten years for himself and his son, the crown 
prince, and the Storthing of 1821 agreed to pay 
about three million dollars. Simultaneously came the 
struggle about the abolition of the nobility. Three 
successive StortJiings passed a law, abolishing noble 
titles and privileges, and the king, who feared a con- 
flict with the powerful nobility of Sweden, in case he 
sanctioned it, made repeated efforts to induce the 
Storthing to abandon its position. He urged that 
Norway was watched by the powers of Europe, and 
that the democratic spirit which manifested itself in 
its legislative assembly would arouse suspicion and 
hostility abroad. The Storthing, however, remained 
inflexible, and finally the law was promulgated, 
though in a slightly modified form. Those of the 
privileges of the nobility which were in conflict with 
the constitution were forthwith abolished ; their ex- 
emption from taxation and all personal privileges 
should cease on the demise of the nobles then living, 
and should not be inherited by their descendants. 
This postponed the final abolition of nobility for one 
generation. 
, A number of other laws and proposals for laws, 



524 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

concerning which the king and the StortJiing differed, 
caused ill-feeling and excitement during the reign of 
Charles John. And it is indeed marvellous, consid- 
ering the comparative inexperience of the representa- 
tives in political life, that they dared present so bold 
a front and insist so strenuously upon their rights. 
To these intrepid men Norway owes the position she 
occupies to-day. For, if they had been meek and 
conciliatory, accepting gratefully what the king was 
pleased to grant them, their country would inevitably 
have sunk into a provincial relation to Sweden, as it 
had formerly to Denmark. The manly ring and 
fearless self-assertion, which resound through the de- 
bates of those early StortJiings^ show that the ancient 
strength was still surviving, and could, indeed, never 
have been dead. No inert and degraded nation can 
draw such representatives from its midst ; and the 
fact that Norway has continued to draw them, up to 
the present time, shows that she is truly represented 
by manliness anc^fearless vigor — that she is worthy 
of the liberty she gained. 

The attitude which the Norwegian Storthings as- 
sumed toward the king is illustrated by the deter- 
mination with which they resisted his efforts to 
extend the royal authority. Though he had been 
trained in the school of the French Revolution, 
Charles John was no believer in democracy or " the 
rights of man." He was an able ruler, a skilful 
diplomat, and a man of honorable intentions. But 
he had been too little in Norway to comprehend the 
spirit of the Norwegian people ; and he was forced, 
in order to maintain his position among his brother 



526 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

monarchs, to sympathize with the reactionary ten- 
dencies which asserted themselves throughout Eu- 
rope after the overthrow of Napoleon. In 1821 he 
proposed ten amendments to the constitution, which 
were unanimously rejected by the Storthing of 1824. 
Among these amendments was one giving the king 
an absolute instead of, as formerly, a suspensive veto ; 
another, conferring upon him the right to appoint 
the presiding officer of the Storthing, and a third, 
authorizing him to dissolve the Storthing at pleasure. 
The former minister of state, Christian Krogh, 
gained great popularity by recommending the rejec- 
tion of these propositions, and the king's persistence 
in bringing them up before several successive Stor- 
things did not secure them a more favorable recep- 
tion. 

An eminent figure in the political struggles of 
those days was the poet Henrik Wergeland, who, as 
the leader of the students, persisted in celebrating 
the anniversary of the constitution (May 17th) con- 
trary to the king's command, instead of the anniver- 
sary of the union with Sweden (November 4th). 
The king exaggerated the importance of this demon- 
stration and in 1829 called out troops, which dis- 
persed, by force of arms, the multitude celebrating the 
national holiday. Wergeland, though he personally 
professed reverence for the king, did not evince the 
same reverence for his policy, and by his indefati- 
gable activity in prose and verse nourished the 
defiant and aggressive patriotism of his countrymen. 
In an intoxication of patriotic pride he sang the 
praise of liberty and celebrated the beauties of forest, 



NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 527 

mountain, and fjord ; and a chorus of minor poets 
declaimed about Norway's Lion, and the rocks of 
Norway which " defied the tooth of time." There 
was a good deal that was boyish and irrational in 
this enthusiasm ; but it was wholesome and genuine 
and politically useful. 

That Charles John did not only hold up the powers 
as a scarecrow, with which to frighten the Norsemen, 
but was himself restrained in his policy by a regard 
for their opinion, is obvious enough. The political 
ferment which, after the July Revolution (1830) in 
France, spread throughout Europe and also reached 
Norway, caused him much apprehension, and in 
order to intimidate the steadily progressing democ- 
racy, he suddenly dissolved the Storthing of 1836. 
The Storthing, regarding this dissolution as contrary 
to law, indicted the Minister of State, Lowenskjold, 
before the high court of the realm [Rigsret), and sen- 
tenced him to pay a fine for not having dissuaded 
the king from violating the constitution. This bold- 
ness, instead of impelling the king to further meas- 
ures of repression, induced him to make a conces- 
sion. He conciliated the Norsemen by appointing 
their countryman. Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, as viceroy. 
This was a great step toward real independence and 
made the king justly popular. During the last years 
of his life, after he had given up the hope of stem- 
ming the tide of democracy, Charles John won the 
hearts of the Norsemen and he was sincerely 
mourned at his death (1844). 

The remnants of subordination in Norway's rela- 
tion to Sweden were one by one removed during the 



528 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

reign of Charles John's son, Oscar I. (1844-1859). 
He gave to Norway a flag of her own, carrying, as a 
symbol of the union, the blended colors of both 
countries in the upper corner ; and what was more, he 
practically abolished the viceroyalty, though per- 
manently it was not abolished until 1873. Peace and 
prosperity reigned in the land ; the population 
increased rapidly, and all industries were in a flour- 
ishing condition. It had, hitherto, been chiefly the 
official and the mercantile class which had partici- 
pated in the public life, but now the peasants, too, 
began to assert themselves and to send representa- 
tives from their own midst to the Storthing. The 
political awakening penetrated to all strata of society ; 
and many sturdy figures appeared in the halls of the 
legislative assembly, fresh from the plough and the 
harrow. Eminent among these were Ole Gabriel 
Ueland and Soren Jaabcek. A prudent moderation, 
coupled with a tough tenacity of purpose, is charac- 
teristic of these modern peasant chieftains. Good 
common-sense, incorruptibility, and a stern regard 
for the useful have enabled them to render valuable 
service to the nation. Eloquent they are not ; nor 
are they, in the conventional sense, cultivated. But 
they have usually, by experience, accumulated a con- 
siderable store of facts, which in its application to the 
legislative business is more valuable than loosely 
acquired book-learning. Their struggles with a 
rough climate and a poor soil have made them 
economical ; and they naturally apply their parsi- 
monious habits to the business of state. Being the 
principal tax-payers of the country they have the 



NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 529 

right to influence its fiscal policy ; and Norway has 
profited by their careful husbanding of her resources. 
They know, however, when to spend as well as when 
to save ; and the many costly railroads, highways, 
schools, and other improvements, which have come 
into existence since the peasant party commanded 




BRIDE AND GROOM. 

a majority in the Storthing, give evidence of a 
prudent liberality and a well-balanced regard for the 
public weal, which one might scarcely have expected 
in people, whose chief experience is derived from the 
tilling of the soil. The majority of them, however, 
bring with them some practice in public life from 



530 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

home, as since the estabhshment of parish and mu- 
nicipal councils [Formandskaber), (1837), the man- 
agement of local affairs is almost entirely in the hands 
of local tax-payers. 

The first Sleswick-Holstein war, between Germany 
and Denmark, occurred during King Oscar's reign 
(1848), and induced him to make a military demon- 
stration in Skaane ; and during the following year, 
when the war, after an armistice, broke out anew, 
to occupy North Sleswick with Swedish and Norwe- 
gian troops, pending the negotiations for peace. In 
the Crimean War, King Oscar sided with England 
and France, which, by a treaty of 1855, guaranteed 
their aid, in case of hostilities with Russia. 

King Oscar died at the age of sixty (1859), "^"^^ 
was succeeded by his oldest son, Charles XV. (1859- 
1872). He was a chivalrous character, and endowed 
with literary and artistic talents. The same good- 
will toward Norway which animated his father had 
been inherited by him, and all efforts, on the part of 
the StortJiing^ to further the welfare of the land, were 
readily seconded. The Norwegian merchant marine, 
which is one of the largest in the world, carried the 
flag of Norway to the remotest ports ; the lumber 
trade increased, and the wealth obtainable in man- 
ufactures and commerce stimulated the energy of 
Norse merchants, and quickened everywhere the 
pulses of life. Religious liberty was Increased by 
the law concerning dissenters (1845), although there 
Is, In this respect, yet much to be accomplished. In 
185 1, the paragraph of the constitution excluding 
Jews from the country was repealed, owing largely 



NOR WA V RECO VERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 5 3 1 

to the agitation commenced, some years before, by 
the poet Wergeland. The telegraph was introduced, 
and soon extended from the North Cape to Lindes- 
ness. In 1869, a law was passed, making the Stor- 
things annual, instead of, as hitherto, triennial. 

Charles XV. died in the prime of life, and, having 
no sons, was succeeded (1872) by his brother, Oscar 
II., who is still reigning. The progress toward a 
more complete and consistent democracy, which had 
been going on, since the adoption of the constitution, 
has recently reached a crisis, which might have had 
disastrous consequences, if the king had not wisely 
made concessions to the parliamentary majority. 
There were really two points at issue, viz., the abso- 
lute veto in constitutional questions and the control 
of the government. As regards the former, the king 
held that the Norwegian constitution was a contract 
between him and the Norwegian people, prescribing 
the terms of the union. Accordingly, it could not 
be altered without the consent of both parties. He 
had, therefore, the right to insist upon the terms of 
the contract, and to forbid any alteration of it, that 
did not meet with his approval. There can be no 
doubt but that legally this point was well taken ; and 
the faculty of law in the University sustained the 
king's position. Another question is, whether such 
a contract, if eternally enforced, would not cripple 
the nation's progress, and in time become as great a 
curse, as once it had been a blessing. If the framers 
of the constitution, when they submitted it to Charles 
John, failed. to provide for its amendment, they com- 
mitted a serious error, which may, perhaps, be bind- 



532 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

ing upon their descendants, in point of law, but 
scarcely in point of equity. No constitution, how- 
ever excellent, is fitting for all times ; and the con- 
stitution of Eidsvold is no exception to the rule. 

This struggle over the absolute veto was occa- 
sioned by the king's refusal to sanction a lav/, passed 
by three successive Storthings^ admitting the cabinet 
ministers to participation in the debates of the house, 
so as to establish a closer rapport between the peo- 
ple and the government. This seemed especially 
desirable, as long as the king and a division of the 
cabinet were resident in Stockholm, and, accordingly, 
were in danger of losing sight of the needs of the 
people whom they were governing. The king de- 
clared himself ready to sign this law, if the ministers 
were given the right to vote, and the right was 
granted him to dissolve the Storthing at will. It 
seemed to him a disturbance of the balance of power 
to introduce one feature of English parliamentarism, 
giving an advantage to the legislature, without also 
granting the other, which enabled the executive to 
exert a restraining influence. The StortJiing was, 
however, unwilling to grant this right, being of opin- 
ion that there was no need of gov jrnmental restraint, 
where elections were annual. The ministry, Selmer, 
which maintained the attitude here ascribed to the 
king, was impeached by the StortJiing before the 
high court of the realm, for having refused to pro- 
mulgate the law concerning the participation of the 
ministers in the deliberations of the house, and for 
failing, in other points, to carry out the will of the 
Storthing. 




to^ 



OSCAR II. 



5 34 THE ST OR y* OF NOR WA V. 

The other phase of the question was scarcely less 
important. A certain antagonism had early devel- 
oped itself between the ofificial class, which had been 
accustomed to take the lead in public affairs, and the 
peasantry, which became every year more conscious 
of its power. The king, who is naturally conserva- 
tive, chose his advisers from those, whose political 
views accorded with his own, irrespective of par- 
liamentary majorities. The constitution did not 
limit his liberty of choice, and the Storthing could 
scarcely do it, without passing an amendment, 
which he would be sure to veto. The conservative 
ministry, Stang, conducted the government for many 
years with a hostile majority in the Storthing, and 
the ministry, Selmer, which succeeded it (1880), had 
even less popular support. The result was a dead- 
lock ; legislative business threatened to come to a 
standstill. The impeachment and conviction of Mr. 
Selmer and his colleagues brought a fresh ministry 
of officials into power, which, after a few months, re- 
signed. The king then sent for Mr. Sverdrup, the 
leader of the " left," or liberal party, and effected a 
compromise, in accordance with which he agreed to 
sanction .the law in question, and to summon a min- 
istry, representing the party of the majority, without, 
however, surrendering, in principle, his right to an 
absolute veto in constitutional questions. Since then 
the executive and the legislative power have worked 
together in harmony, and the former good relation 
between the king and the people - has been in a 
measure re-established. 

It will be seen from the above, that Norway has, 



NORWAY RECOVERS HER INDEPENDENCE. 535 

through the conflicts of seventy years, gradually at- 
tained to perfect independence and equality with the 
brother kingdom. All attempts to amalgamate the 
two nations have failed, and have, long since, been 
abandoned. Politically, the person of the king ex- 
presses the union. He is king of Norway and he is 
king of Sweden, but he governs each country in 
accordance with its own laws and through distinct 
and separate ministries. Each country has its own 
parliament; no Swede holds. office in Norway, and 
no Norseman in Sweden. The only offices which 
are open to citizens of both countries are those of 
the diplomatic and consular service. The general 
sentiment in Norway is opposed to a closer union. 
A stubborn insistence upon every feature of national 
distinctness has characterized the people, since the 
separation from Denmark. 

Thus an effort has been made to get rid of the 
'' union mark " in the Norwegian flag ; because it 
seemed vaguely to hint at a provincial relation. A 
separate literature has sprung up in the Norse dia- 
lects {Maalstrdz'), because the Danish, which is yet 
spoken, with some modifications, by the cultivated 
classes, is a reminder of the period of degradation, 
and is not the language of the people. Popular 
high schools, aiming to build the intellectual life of 
the people upon a strictly national basis, have been 
started by devoted and patriotic men, in nearly all 
the provincial parishes, and have produced excellent 
results. The national literature, under the lead of 
men like Bjornstjerne Bjornson, and Henrik Ibsen, 
is moving in the same direction, its language being 



$36 THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

continually enriched from the dialects, and its themes 
largely drawn from the ancient sagas and the life of 
the people. The aggressive and declamatory patriot- 
ism of Wergeland, and the aesthetic and more cosmo- 
politan patriotism of his opponent, Welhaven, seem 
equally alien to the Norsemen of to-day. The frank 
national self-assertion of the present poets is that of 
a people, proud of its past, and secure in its national 
existence. The Norseman, having obtained what is 
his due, has cause for jealousy neither of Sweden nor 
of Denmark. 

In an age when strength, bravery, and an adven- 
turous spirit made a nation eminent, Norway played 
a great role upon the arena of the world, founding 
and destroying kingdoms, mingling her vigorous 
blood with that of other nations, and infusing her 
love of liberty, restrained by law, into their souls. 
Since powder and modern strategy have subordi- 
nated heroism to discipline and numbers, Norway 
must resign herself to the fate which her numerical 
weakness imposes upon her. A people of scarcely 
two millions can cut no very great figure in the 
world, as it is now constituted. It must either rest 
upon its laurels or win new ones in other fields. As 
the militant organization of society, with its needless 
bloodshed and oppression, slowly yields to the indus- 
trial, history will find another gauge of merit than 
that of Krupp guns and heavy battalions. Then, 
perhaps, there will again be a chance for small nations 
to assert themselves. 

Norway has made a beginning in this direction by 
her contributions, during recent years, to science and 




bjOrnstjerne bj5rnson. 



53S THE STORY OF NORWAY. 

literature. The astronomer Hansteen (d. 1873), the 
mathematicians Abel and Sophus Lie, the zoologist 
Sars, the historians Munch, Keyser, Sars, and Storm, 
and the philologist Ivar Aason, have gained recogni- 
tion, beyond the boundaries of their own country. 
The painters Tidemand (d. 1876) and Gude have 
interpreted in colors the poetry of Norse popular 
life and scenery. The musicians Ole Bull (d. 1880), 
Nordraak, and Grieg have made the melancholy 
strains of their native mountains resound through 
the concert-halls of Paris and London, and the 
poets Bjornson, Ibsen, Jonas Lie, and Alexander 
Kielland have made Norway known to the world 
and the world known to Norway. They have broken 
down the wall which so long hedged in their country, 
and excluded it from the intellectual life of Europe. 





INDEX. 



Aabo, 514 

Aachen, 31, 32 

Aake, the Yeoman, 58 

Aal, Jacob, 518 

Aale Hallvardsson, 373 

Aaluf , 1 1 r 

Aamunde Gyrdsson, 312 

Aaros, 237 

Aasa, 32 

Aasa, Haakon (jrjotgardsson's 

daughter, 60 
Aasbjorn Sigurdsson, 211, 212 
Aasbjorn of Medalhus, 92 
Aasen, Ivar, 538 
Aasgerd, wife of Egil Baldgrim's 

son, 78, 79 
Aasta, mother of Olaf the Saint, 

J82, 186, 187, 188, 199, 200, 

240 
Aastrid, queen of Olaf the Saint, 

]97 
Aastrid, Olaf Tryggvesson's 

mother, 108, log, 134, 135 
Aastrid, Olaf Tryggvesson's sis- 
ter, 148 
Aastrid, daughter of Thirik, 153 
Aastrid, wife of Earl Sigvalde, 

163, 171 
Aasulf of Austraat, 426 
Abel, mathematician, 538 
Absalon, Bishop, 330, 359, 379 
Adalbert of Bremen, 272 
Adeler, Kort, 500 
Aeger, 23 
Aelgifa, see Alfifa 



Aesir, 13, 14 

Africa, 32, 298 

Agdeness, 294, 300 

Agder, 32, 47, 147, 173, 324 

Agmund Skoftesson, 288 

Agnes, Queen of Denmark, 456 

Agnes, daughter of Haakon 
Longlegs, 478 

Agvaldsness, 95, 211 

Aker, 416, 492 

Akershus, 459, 481, 486, 503 

Akron, 293 

Albrecht of Mecklenburg, 463, 
464, 467, 468, 469 

Alexander Newsky, 430 

Alexander IV., Pope, 430 

Alexander, I., Emperor of Rus- 
sia, 5TO, 514 

Alexander III., King of Scot- 
land, 430, 442, 453 

Alexius I., Comnenus, 293 

Alexius HI., Angelus, 360 

Alf Askman, 100 

Alf Erlingsson, 453-456 

Alf Guldbrandsson, 207 

Alfheim, 21 

Alfhild, mother of Magnus the 
Good, 230 

Alfifa, 225-229 

Alfonso the Wise, 430 

Alfvine, J 37, 138 

Allogia, see Olga 

Almannagjaa, 439 

Alsted, 248 

Althing, 159, 436 

Amboise, 34 

America, 31, 179 



539 



540 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Amsterdam, 474 

Amund Sigurdsson Bolt, 473 

Andres Skjaldarband, 399, 423 

Andvake, 372 

Anglesey, 288 

Anglo-Saxon, 41, 138, 147 

Anker, Peder, 518 

Anna Kolbjornsdatter, 503 

Ansgarius, St., 32 

Anund, 145 

Anund Jacob, King of Sweden, 

198, 213, 214, 217, 218 
Apostles, Church of the, 294 
Arctic Circle, 494 
Arinbjorn Thoresson, 78, 82, 85 
Armfelt, General, 504, 512 
Arnbjorn Jonsson, 413, 424 
Arnmodlings, 255 
Aryans, i, 2, 3, 5 
Asaheim, 13 

Asgard, 13, 18, 19, 20, 23 
Asgeir, 36 
Asia, I, 13, 240 
Ask, 18 
Askatin, 442 
Aslak Erlingsson, 179 
Aslak Rock-Skull, 124 
Astrid, Sverre's first wife, 380 
Audhumbla, 16 
Audun Hugleiksson, 451, 457 
Aun the Old, 45 
Aura-Paul, 364 
Austrian, 498 



B 



Baard, steward of Erik Blood- 
Axe, 78, 79 
Bagler, 360-401, 407, 413 
Balder, 21, 22 

Bald Grim, 57, 62, 63, 77, 78, 79 
Baldwin, 293 

Baltic, the, 94, 237, 277, 312, 463 
Bank of Norway, 522 
Beauvois, 36 
Belts, the, 356 
Bene Skindkniv, 401 
Bengt Algotsson, 463 
Beorthric, 41 
Berg-Anund, 79, 80 



Bergen, 280, 294, 307, 309, 316, 
323, 324. 327, 328, 345, 346, 
347, 348, 349, 354, 356, 359, 
362, 365, 366. 375, 376, 388, 
390, 392, 398, 410, 413, 417, 
420, 422, 424, 428, 429, 457, 
462, 465, 473, 478, 480, 488, 
492, 494, 506 

Bergljot, 119, 178, 261, 264 

Bergthor's Knoll, 158 

Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste, 513, 
515, 519-528, 531 

Bernsdorff, Andreas, 509 

Bertrand of Tripolis, 293 

Bevje-Aa, 320 

Biadmuin, 289 

Bifrost, 17 

Birchlegs, 333-407, 4i4. 425, 426, 
427 

Birger, Earl of Gotland, 333, 
.336. 337 

Birger Magnusson, King of Swe- 
den, 456, 458, 459, 461 

Bjarkemaal, 221 

Bjarko, 211, 212, 451, 462 

Bjarne Erlingsson, 451, 452 

Bjarne Herjulfsson, 179 

Bjelke, General, 498 

Bjorgvin. see Bergen 

Bjorn, King of Sweden, 196 

Bjorn Egilsson, 311 

Bjorn Ironside, 34 

Bjorn, a peasant, 109 

Bjorn the Merchant, 71, 182 

Bjorn Stallare, 194, 195, 197, 
218 

Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, 535, 537, 
.538 

Bjorn, the yeoman, 77, 78, 79 

Black Death, the, 465, 466 

Blanca of Namur, 462, 463 

Blekinge, 463, 498 

Bor, 16 

Bogesund, 483 

Bohemia, i 

Borg, see Sarpsborg 

^oxgox-thing, 253, 361, 445 

Borghild, daughter of Olaf of 
Dal, 297 

Bornhoved, 417 



INDEX, 



541 



Bornholm, 498 

Brage, 22, 45, 120 

Bratsberg, 155, 317 

Breidablik, 21 

Bremangerland, 339 

Bremen, 147, 272 

Brenn Islands, 231 

Brigida, Harold Gille's daughter, 

333 
Brising, 23 
Bristein, 354 
Bromsebro, 496 
Brunkeberg, 480 
Brynjulf, 129 
Bue the Big, 122-126 
Bugge, Prof. Sophus, 153 
Bull, Ole, 538 
Bure, 16 

Buris Henriksson, 330 
Burislav, 136, 142, 154, 162 
Buste, 110 
Bute, 431 
Byzantine, 360 



Candor, Lay of, 234 

Canterbury, 147 

Cantire, 431 

Cape Cod, 180, 181 

Capercailzie, the, 505 

Carolingians, 36 

Carrara, 34 

Catholic, 487, 489 

Cecilia, second queen of Sigurd 
the Crusader, 304 

Cecilia, daughter of Sigurd 
Mouth, 332, 336, 382 

Celestin IV., Pope, 427 

Charlemagne, 31, 32, 33, 230 

Charles the Bald, 36 

Charles the Simple, 64, 65 

Charles Knutsson Peasant, 473, 
478, 479. 480 

Charles Sunesson, 312 

Charles V., Emperor of Ger- 
many, 483 

Charles IX., King of Sweden, 

495 
Charles X. Gustavus, 498 



Charles XII., King of Sweden, 

501. 502, 503 
Charles XIII., 513, 520, 522 
Charles XIV. John, see Berna- 

dotte 
Charles XV., King of Norway 

and Sweden, 530, 531 
Christ-Church, 284, 428 
Christian I., 478-481 
Christian II., 481-487 
Christian III., 487-492 
Christian IV., 494-496 
Christian V., 500, 501 
Christian VI., 506 
Christian VII., 508 
Christian VIII., see Christian 

P>ederick 
Christian August, of Augusten- 

borg, 512, 5I3_ 
Christian PVederick, 515-522 
Christiania, 256, 494, 503, 508, 

522 
Christiania Fjord, 46 
Christiansand, 494 
Christina, Avife of Erling Skakke, 

318, 322, 332 
Christina, Sverre's daughter, 380, 

381, 383, 384, 393 
Christina, wife of Haakon Galen, 

382, 384, 387, 395, 398, 410, 
412 

Christina, daughter of Haakon 
the Old, 430 

Christopher I., King of Den- 
mark, 430, 453 

Christopher of Bavaria, 473, 474, 
478 

Christopher, Count of Olden- 
borg, 4S7 

Churl's Head, the, 190, 191 

Clement, St., 193, 227 

Clyde, Firth of, 431 

Constantinople, 240, 264, 293, 
302, 376 

Conqueror, see William the 

Copenhagen, 219, 455, 459, 462, 
477,^ 498, 499, 5c6, 509, 510 

Count's Feud, the, 487, 490 

Cowlmen, see Kuvlungs 

Crane, the, 157, 164, 165 



542 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Crimean War, the, 530 
Crookmen, see Baglers 
Curia, the Roman, 422, 452 
Cuthbert, St., 42 

D 

Dagfinn Peasant, 375, 404, 405 

Dalarne, 472 

Dale-Guldbrand, 207, 208, 210 

Dalsland, 288 

Dannebrog, the, 502 

Dannevirke, 116 

Dav, 332 

Delling, 17 

Dingeness, 113 

Ditmarsken, 481 

Djursaa, 258, 330 

Domesday Book, 63 

Donald Bane, 285 

Donmouth, 42 

Dorchester, 41 

Dorestad, 36 

Dovre Mountain, 286, 294, 300, 

517 
Drontheim, 54, 91, 92, 118, 121, 

140, 148, 189, 219, 220, 403, 

465, 478, 479, 492, 498, 504, 

508, 517, 522 
Drontheim Fjord, 54, 71, 107, 

140, 362 
Dublin, 38, 40, 139, 238 
Dumbarton, 40 
Durham, see Simeon of 
Dutch,_474, 485, 495, 498, 500 
Dynekilen, 503, 504 



Eadburg, 41 

Eadgar the Etheling, 285 

Eadwine, Earl, 268 

Ecgfridh, 42 

Edda, the Younger, 434 

Edward the Confessor, 236 

Edward I., 453 

Egil Aaslaksson, 287 

Egil, Bald Grim's son, 62, 77-84 

Egil Woolsark, 96, 97 

Eidsivia Law, the, 47, 210, 445 

Eidskog, 337 



Eidsvold, 70, 210, 414, 516, 518, 
519, 520, 522, 532 

Einar Thambarskelver, 162, 169, 
170, 178, 179, 189, 190, 191, 
192, 217, 227, 228, 229, 231, 
232, 233, 236, 237, 238, 239, 
243, 244, 246, 247, 249, 252, 
254, 260, 261-265 

Einar the Priest, 375 

Eindride Einarsson, 238, 239, 264 

Eindride the Young, 327, 328 

Elgeseter, 426 

Elivagar, 16 

Ellisif, queen of Harold Hard- 
Ruler, 242, 235, 260, 272, 274 

Elsinore, 455 

Embla, 18 

Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, 472, 

473 

England, i, 12, 28, 31, 40, 41 
42, 43, 72, 79, 80, 81, 84, 88 
90, 91, 128, 137, 138, 139 
142, 147, 177, 179, 183, 184 
185, 207, 212, 213, 217, 228 
236, 268, 273, 276, 277, 278 
283, 287, 292, 347, 375, 443 
446, 447, 453, 454, 465, 509 
510, 512, 513, 514, 530 

Enkoping, 464 

Erik, Archbishop, 358, 379, 387 

Erik Blood-Axe, 68, 70-86, 88, 
94, 95, 99, 102, 160, 182 

Erik Eiegod, 288 

Erik Eimundsson, 57, 58, 196 

Erik Emune, 312 

Erik Eriksson Lisp, King of 
Sweden, 412 

Erik Clipping, 453, 454 

Erik Gudrodsson, 32 

Erik Haakonsson, Earl, 119, I2i— 
127, 163-181, 184, 215, 254 

Erik, King of H[6rdeland, 52 

Erik Kingsson, Earl, 351 

Erik Magnusson, Duke, 458, 

459. 461 
Erik Magnusson, son of Magnus 

Smek, 462, 463 
Erik Menved, 455 
Erik of Ofrestad, 108 
Erik Plowpenny, 453 



INDEX. 



543 



Erik of Pomerania, 467-474 
Erik Priest-Hater, 451-456, 459 
Erik the Red, Archbishop, 179, 

181 
Erik the Saint, 380 
Erik the Victorious, King of 

Sweden, 152, 196 
Erik the Younger, King of South 

Jutland, 68 
Erlend of Husaby, 391 
Erlend Plaakonsson, 129, 130 
Erling Eriksson, 106 
Erling Haakonsson, 121, 123, 

128 
Erling Skakke, Earl, 318, 319, 

322-343, 350, 355, 357, 360 
Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, 148, 

162, 164, 174, 176, 17'8, 179, 

190, 192, 210, 211, 212, 216, 

217, 318 
Erling Stonewall, 385, 386, 387, 

390 
Erling Vidkunsson, 462 
Erne, Loch, 38 
Ernst, Herzog, 242 
Eskil Lawman, 412 
Essex, 138 
Esthonia, 135, 196 
Estrid, daughter of Sweyn Fork- 
beard, 236 
EthelredIL, 138, 139, 183 
Ethelstan, 72, 73, 79, 80, 85, 150 
Eugene III., Pope, 320 
Euphemia of Arnsteini 457, 459 
Europe, 465, 483, 523, 526, 527, 

538. 
Eystein, Earl of Hedemark and 

Vestfold, 76 
Eystein Erlendsson, 327, 347, 

354. 357. 358 
Eystein Haroldsson, 314-317 
Eystein Magnusson, 291-301, 

317, 329 
Eystein Meyla, 333, 334, 336 
Eystein Orre, 255, 270 
Eyvind Kinriva, 154, 156, 157 
Eyvind Lambe, 57, 59 
Eyvind Scald-Spoiler, 98, 99, 

100, 105, 154 
Eyvind Skreyja, 79, 100 



Faeroe Isles, 40, 43, 158, 159, 
320, 333, 334, 336, 380 

Falkoping, 468 

Fall River, 180 

Falsen, Judge, 518 

Falsterbro, 466 

Fenris-Wolf, 21, 23 

Fensal, 22 

Finland, 196, 512, 513 

Finmark, 74, 173, 495, 506 

Finn Arnesson, 255, 265, 266, 
267 

Finn Eyvindsson, 170 

Finns, 3, 50, 61, 67, 74, 278, 295 

Fitje, 98 

Fjolne, 45 

Flanders, 28 

Flensborg, 472 

Florsvaag, 356 

Folden, 46, 190, 256, 320, 425 

Folkvang, 23 

Folkvid the Lawman, 332, 336, 
382 

Fontenelle, 36 

Formentera, 292 

Fors, 317 

Forsete, 22 

Fraedoe, 96 

France, i, 36, 43, 64, 137, 277, 
430, 509, 527, 530 

Fredensborg, 504 

Frederick, Count Palatine, 487, 
488 

Frederick I., 485, 486 

Frederick II., Emperor of Ger- 
many, 418, 430 

Frederick II., King of Den- 
mark and Norway, 492 

Frederick III., 4()6-500 

Frederick IV., 501, 502, 506 

Frederick V., 508 

Frederick VI., 509-516 

Frederickshald, 500, 503 

Frederickshamn, 513 

Frederickstad, 492 

Fredericksteen, 503, 504, 520 

Freke, 20 

Frey, 21, 45, 144, 150, 207 



544 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Freya, 22, 23 

Freydis, 181 

Fridkulla, 288 

Frigg, 22 

Frisian, 205 

Yxo%\.2,-thing, 88, 91, 92, 149, 

359. 445 
Frosten, 150, 189 
Fulford, 268 
Funen, 245, 455, 498 
Fuxerne, 288 
Fyrileiv, 307 



G 



Gahn, Colonel, 520 

Gall, St., 32 

Gallia Narbonensis, 32 

Gamle Eriksson, 94, 97 

Gardarike, see Russia 

Gauldale, 129, 341 

Gaule, 79 

Gaul River, see Gula Elv 

Gatiier, see Goths 

Gautland, 118, 152 

Geira, 136, 162 

Georgios Maniakes, 240, 242 

Gerd, 21 

Gere, 20 

German, 3, 25, 31, 44, 430, 464, 

468, 471, 480, 483, 488, 492, 

494, 495, 496, 501, 506, 508, 

521 
Germany, 115, 277, 430, 457, 

465, 496, 530 
Ginnungagap, 16 
Giske, 451, 462, 481 
Gisla, wife of Duke Rollo, 65 
Gissur the White, 127 
Gissur the White, 158 
Gissur Thorvaldsson, Earl, 440, 

.444 
Gjallar Bridge, 21 
Gjallar Horn, 21, 22 
Gjeble Pedersson, Bishop, 490 
Glommen, 194 

Godfrey the Hunter, see Gudrod 
Gold-FIarold, 112, 113 
Goldlegs, 356 
Gorm the Old, 53, 86, 214 



Gotha Elv,, 231, 257, 259, 260 

Gotland, 333 

Gottland, 463, 473, 496 

Goths, 3 

Gran, 153 

Great Northern War, the, 502 

Greece, 137, 138 

Greeks, 3, 44, 240, 293 

Greenland, 158, 179, 180, 181, 

320, 430 
Gregorius Dagsson, 316, 317—320 
Gregory IX., Pope, 421, 427 
Gfib, Peter, 504 
Grieg, J., 538 
Griffenfeld, 501 
Grim, see Bald Grim 
Grim Keikan, 423 
Grimkel, Bishop, 207, 227 
Grjotgard Haakonsson, 106 
Gude, J., 538 
Gudleik Gerdske, 278 
Gudny Bodvar's daughter, 434 
Gudolf of Blakkestad, 407 
Gudrid, wife of Thorfinn Karls- 

evne, 181 
Gudrod Bjornsson, 88, 102, 105, 

107 
Gudrod Eriksson, 104, 107, 113, 

160 
Gudrod Haroldsson, 60 
Gudrod the Hunter, 31, 32, 46 
Gudrod, King of Hadeland, 199 
Gudrod, King of the Hebrides, 

320 
Gudrod Ljome, 68, 69 
Gudrod Meranagh, 286 
Gudrun, daughter of Ironbeard, 

152 
Gudrun Lundarsol, 129 
Gula Elv, 120, 465 
Gula-///m^, 79, 89, 210, 445 
Guldberg, Ove, 508 
Guldbrandsdale, 207, 208, 210, 

245, 495, 517 

Gungner, 20 

Gunhild, Queen of Erik Blood- 
Axe, 74-86, 94, 95, 99, 100, 
lOi, 102, 104-114, 130, 134 

Gunhild, mother of Sverre, 334 

Gunnar of Gimse, 311 



INDEX. 



545 



Gunnar Grjonbak, 352 

Gunvor, 153 

Gustavus Adolphus, 495, 496 

Gustavus IV., 512 

Gustavus Trolle, 483 

Gustavus Wasa, 484, 487 

Guttorm, Archbishop, 400, 410, 
411 

Guttorm Eriksson, 94, 95 

Guttorm Haroldsson, 60 

Guttorm Ingesson, 395 

Guttorm, son of Sigurd Hjort, 
47, 48, 52, 53, 62 

Guttorm Sigurdsson, 385, 387 

Guttorm Sigurdsson, 199, 200 

Guttorm Sindre, 71 

Gyda, wife of Harold the Fair- 
haired, 52, 53, 59, 60 

Gyda, wife of Olaf Tryggvesson, 
137, 142, 228 

Gyldenstjerne, Knut, 486 



H 



Haakonarnmal, loi 

Haakon Eriksson, Earl, 178, 179, 

184-186, 215-218 
Haakon Galen, 377, 382-398, 

402, 410, 412, 414 
Haakon Grjotgardsson, 56, 60 
Haakon, Gunhild's emissary, 109 
Haakon Haakonsson the Old, 

391-433, 437-444 
Haakon Ivarsson, 259, 264-268 
Haakon Jonsson, Lord High 

Steward, 467 
Haakon Longlegs, 451, 456, 457- 

461 
Haakon Magnusson, son of King 

Magnus Haroldsson, 274, 285, 

286 
Haakon Magnusson, son of King 

Magnus Smek, 461-466 
Haakon Paulsson, 287 
Haakon Sigurdsson, Earl, 106, 

107, 110-134, 139, 163, 166, 

173, 254, 261 
Haakon Sverresson, King of Nor- 
way, 370, 377, 379-385, 391, 

404 



Haakon the Broad-Shouldered, 

316, 319, 320, 322-326 
Haakon the Good, 72, 73, 80, 

87-101, 105, 106, 150, 160, 

294, 446 
Haakon the Old, a Swedish Peas- 
ant, no, 134 
Haalogaland, 56, 60, 148, 154, 

155, 158, 211, 366 
Haarek Gand, 48 
Haarek Haroldsson, 60 
Haarek of Thjotta, 148, 154-156, 

158, 233 
Haavard the Hewer, 124, 127 
Hadeland, 50, 51, 153, 199, 203 
Hadrian IV., Pope, see Nicholas 

Breakspeare 
Hadulaik, 121 
Hafrs-Fjord, 59, 60, 63 
Hagustald, 121 
Hake, a Berserk, 47, 48 
Haldor Brynjulfsson, 320 
Half dan Haalegg (Longlegs) 68, 

69 
Halfdan Sigurdsson, 199, 200 
Halfdan the Swarthy, Gudrods- 

son, 32, 46-52, 318, 432 
Halfdan the Swarthy, liarolds- 

son, 60, 71, 72, 76 
Halfdan the White, 60 
Halfdan Whiteleg, 46 
Halland, 214, 266, 267, 273, 307, 

418, 453, 454, 460, 462, 463, 

498 
Hallkel Agmundsson, 451, 452, 

456 
Plallkel Jonsson, 355, 356 
Hall of the Side, 158 
Hallvard Vebjornsson, St., 256, 

322 
Hals, 258 

Hamar, 321, 420, 421, 492 
Hamburg, 32 
Hampshire, 138 
Hannibal's Feud, 496 
Hans, King of Norway, Sweden, 

and Denmark, 481, 482 
Hans, son of Frederick I., 487 
Hans Kolbjornsson, 503 
Hansa, see Hanseatic League 



546 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Hanseatic League, 453, 454, 455, 

460, 464, 474, 480, 485, 490, 

509 
Hansteen, astronomer, 538 
Hardeland, 41 

Harold, Earl of the Orkneys, 355 
Harold, grandson of Sigurd the 

Crusader, 332 
Harold Bluetooth, 86, 94, 95, 

110-120, 138, 161, 410 
Harold Gille, 303-311, 313, 314, 

320,322, 333, 337, 346, 382, 

386 
Harold Godwineson, 268, 269, 

272 
Harold Greyfell, 94, 100, 102- 

114 
Harold Gronske, 152, 182 
Harold Hard-Ruler, 199, 200, 

201, 221, 240-274, 278, 283, 

286, 308 
Harold Ingesson, 349 
Harold the Fairhaired, 31, 49, 

50-74, 87, 88, 99, 105, 130, 

134, 139, 140, 152, 155, 174, 

176, 177, 182, 183, 187,. 188 

198, 201, 226, 231, 245, 251, 

252, 256, 275, 276, 318, 350, 

378, 433, 460 
Harthaknut, 229, 231, 234, 236 
Hasting, 34, 35, 36 
Hastings, 272 
Haug, 232 
Hauk, 155 
Haukby, 284 
Hebrides, 40, 43, 63, 288, 311, 

312, 394, 480 
Hedemark, 48, 51, 76, 203, 210 
Heidaby, 257 
Heimdal, 22 

Heimskringla, 13, 45, 433, 440 
Hekla, 465 
Heklungs, 345-348 
Hel, 23, 24 

Helge Hvasse, 396, 397 
Helge-aa, 215 
Helgeness, 237 
Helgeo, 413, 421 
Helheim, 24 
Hellenes, i 



Helluland, 180 

Heming Haakonsson, 119 

Henrik of Schwerin, 410 

Henry I,, King of England, 292 

Hercules, Pillars of, 34 

Heredhaland, 41 

Herjedale, 496 

Herlaug, King in Naumdale, 54 

Herluf Hyttefad, 482 

Hettesveiner, see Hood-Swains 

Himinbjarg, 22 

Hindoos, 2, 3 

Hinsgavl, 455 

Hirdskraa, 445 

Hitterdale Church, 299 

Hjalte Skeggesson, 194 

Hjorungavaag, 121, 122 

Hlade, 127, 132,148, 149, 152,189 

Hnos, 23 

Hoder, 22 

Hofudlausn, 85 

Hogne Langbjornsson, 262, 263 

Holand, 502 

Honefoss, 371 

Honer, 18 

Horda-Kaare, 318 

Hordeland, 52, 98, 140, 147, 324 

Horgadal, 435 

Holberg, Ludvig, 506 

Holland, 485, 488 

Holmengraa, 313 

Holstein, 485, 496, 501, 515, 530 

Holy Land, 171, 218, 292, 298, 

308, 376 
Hood-Swains, 329 
Hornboresund, 312 
Hornelen, 339 
Hrimfaxe, 17 
Hugditrich, 242 
Hugin, 20 
Humber, 81 
Hvergelmer, 16 
Hvitingsoe, 393, 400 
Hyrning, 161, 162 



Ibsen, Henrik, 535, 538 

Iceland, 40, 44, 62, 63, 77, 79, 
80, 85, 146, 158, 159, 202, 320, 
430, 433-441, 443, 444, 465 



INDEX. 



547 



Icolmkill, 38 

Ida, plain of, 20 

Idun, 22 

Ilevolds, 296, 345 

India, 2 

Inga of Varteig, 391, 404, 405 

Inge Baardsson, 284, 385-400, 

402 
Inge Crookback, 311-321, 323, 

349. 353. 358 
Inge, chief of the Baglers, 360, 

361, 380, 421 
Inge, King of Sweden, 288 
Ingeborg, queen of Magnus 

Law-Mender, 451, 452, 453, 

454 
Ingeborg, daughter of Erik 

Priest-Hater, 456, 459 
Ingeborg, daughter of Haakon 

Longlegs, 458, 459, 461 
Ingegerd, daughter of Harold 

Hard-Ruler, 268, 272 
Ingegerd, daughter of Olaf the 

Swede, 195, 197, 217, 218 
Inger of OeStraat, 485 
Ingerid, Queen of Harold Gille, 

311, 314, 386 
Ingjald Ill-Ruler, 45 
Ingrid, queen of Olaf the Quiet, 

274 
Innocent III., Pope, 366, 379 
Innocent IV., Pope, 429 
lona, 38 
Iranians, 2 
Ireland, I, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 

138, 228, 277, 287, 289, 295, 

303, 309 
Irishman, 303, 304, 313 
Iron Ram, 169 
Ironbeard, 149, 151, 152 
Irp, Valkyria, 123 
Isabella Bruce, queen of Erik 

Priest-Hater, 456 
Isabella, queen of Christian II., 

483 
Italic tribes, i, 3 
Italy, 292 

Ivar, King in Limerick, 40 
Ivar Assersson, 307, 308 
Ivar Darre, 348 



Ivar of Fljod, 295 
Ivar Steig, 349 

J 

Jaaboek, vSoren, 528 

Jacob, Count of Halland, 454 

Jaederen, 59 

James III., King of Scotland, 

480 
Jaroslav, 217, 218, 240, 242 
Jaxartes, i 
Jemteland, 194, 198, 294, 300, 

459, 496. 498 

Jerusalem, 233, 291, 293 

Jews, 32, 44, 530 

Josse Eriksson, 472 

Johannes, see Hans 

Jomsborg, 120, 237 

Jomsvikings, 120-128, 163 

Jon Birgersson, Archbishop, 321 

Jon, chief of the Kuvlungs, 353 

Jon Kutiza, 345 

Jon Loftsson, 434 

Jon the Red, Archbishop, 448, 
452 

Jonvolds, 365 

Juliana Maria, queen of Fred- 
erick V. , 508 

Jumieges, 36 

Jutland, 41, 68, 95, 116, 236, 
237, 257. 324, 330, 453, 485, 
495, 496, 498 



K 



Kalf Arnesson, 217, 222, 228, 
229, 231, 232, 233, 235, 255, 
265, 266 

Kalfsund, 459 

Kalmar, 301, 455, 467, 4C9, 470, 

479, 495 
Kalvskindet, 343, 344, 345 
Karelen, 196 
Kark, 130,. 131, 132 
Karlsevne, 181 
Karlshoved, 190 
Kelts, I 
Kent, 138 
Ketil Calf, 190, 199 



548 



THE STORY OF NORWAY, 



Keyser, Rudolf, 538 

Kiel, 515, 516, 520, 523 

Kielland, Alexander, 538 

King's Mirror, 441 

Kirkevaag, 432 

Kjogebugt, 502 

Kjolen, 4 

Klerkon, 135, 136 

Klypp Thorsson, in 

Knaerod, 495 

Knut Alfsson, 481 

Knut Eriksson, King of Sweden, 

358, 385 
Knut Haakonsson (Squire K.), 

396, 410, 416, 424, 425 
Knut the Mighty, 179, 185, 212- 

218, 225, 226, 229, 231, 232, 

236, 243, 261, 268 
Knut Porse, 461 
Knut VI., King of Denmark, 

368 
Kolbjorn Stallare, 171 
Kolbjorn the Strong, 209 
Konghelle, 152, 198, 274, 288, 

310, 319 
Kongsberg, 494, 503 
Krebs, Colonel, 502 
Kringen, 495 
Krogh, Christian, 526 
Krokaskogen, 313 
Krummedike, Hartvig, 477 
Krummedike, Henrik, 481, 482 
Krupp, 536 
Kruse, Colonel, 502 
Kurland, 196 
Kuvlungs, 353, 354 
Kveld-Ulf, 56-63, 77 



Laaka, 424, 425 

Labrador, 180 

Laerdal, 119 

Landnama Book, 63 

Laps 3, 495 

Largs, 431 

" Lars," 491 

Latin, 378 

Leif Eriksson, 179, 180, 181 

Leipsic, 515 



Leso, 257 

Lie, Jonas, 538 

Lie, Sophus, 538 

Lier, 520 

Limerick, 40 

Lim Fjord, 258 

Lindesness, 173, 179, 210, 531 

Lindholm, 468 

Lindisfarena, 42 

Lodin, 135, 143 

Lodur, 18 

Lowen, Colonel, 563 

Lowenskjold, 527 

Lofoten, 315, 331 

Loire, 34 

Loke, 23 

London, 73, 538 

Long-Serpent, The, 162, 164- 

169 
Lothair, 37 

Louis the German, 32, 37 
Louis the Pious, 32 
Louis IX., 430 
Louis XIV., 500 
Lubeck, 457, 486, 487, 490, 495 
Luna, 34 
Lunge, Vincentz, 477, 485, 487, 

488 
Luther, 485, 486 
Lutheran, 489, 490, 506, 519 
Lutter and Barenberge, 495 
Lutzow, General, 503 
Lykke, Nils, 485 
Lyrskogs Heath, 237 

M 

Maelsechnail, King of Meath, 38, 

39 
Magne, Bishop, 304, 305 
Magnus Barefoot, 285-290, 295, 

303, 308 
Magnus Birgerson Barnlock, 

King of Sweden, 449, 455, 456, 

458 
Magnus Birgerson, the Younger, 

459. 461 
Magnus Eriksson Smek, King 
of Norway and Sweden, 461— 
465 



INDEX. 



549 



Magnus Erlingsson, King of Nor- 
way, 323-349. 35 f, 355, 356, 
385, 388, 401, 427, 428 
Magnus Haroidsson, 273, 274 
Magnus Law-Mender, 442-451, 

453, 457, 494 
Magnus the Blind, 297, 305-313 
Magnus the Good, 218, 229-250, 

251, 254, 255, 265 
Maid of Norway, The, 453, 

457 

Malcolm, 285 

Malmfrid, 302, 304 

Man, island of, 288, 289, 320, 
394, 442 

Maniakes, see Georgios 

Marcus of Skog, 326, 327 

Margaret, see Maid of Norway 

Margaret, queen of Magnus 
Barefoot, 288 

Margaret, queen of Sverre, 358, 
362, 381, 382, 383 

Margaret, queen of Haakon the 
Old, 407, 413 

Margaret, queen of Erik Priest- 
Hater, 452 

Margaret, Reigning Queen of 
Norway, Sweden, and Den- 
mark, 462, 463, 466, 467-472 

Margaret, daughter of Christian 
I., 480 

Maria, relative of the Empress 
Zoe, 242 

Maria, daughter of Harold Hard- 
Ruler, 268, 272 

Maria, daughter of Harold Gille, 
322 

Markere, Earl, 268 

Markland, 180 

Massachusetts, 180, 181 

Mathias, Bishop, 334, 335 

Matrand, 521 

Mecklenburg, 410, 463, 467, 469 

Medalhvis, 130 

Mediterranean, 318 

Michael, Church of St., 294 

Military Academy, 508 

Mimer, 18 

Minne, 311 

Mjolner, 20 



Mjosen, 199, 321, 380, 408, 413, 

421 
Moliere, 506 

Monnikhofen, Colonel, 495 
More, 56, 59, 64, 69, 130, 150 
Moors, 292, 300 
Mora, 197 
Moss, 521 

Moster, 72, 140, 158, 167 
Mostero, 167 
Motzfeldt, Captain, 518 
Muirkertach, 286, 289 
Munch, P. A., Prof., 378, 538 
Munin, 20 
Munk, Erik, 492 
Munk, Ludvig, 492 
Munkeliv, 294, 480 
Muspelheim, 16, 17 



N 



Nanna, Balder's wife, 21 

Napoleon I., 510, 513, 515, 519, 
520, 526 

Naumdale, 54 

Nessje, 190 

New England, 18 r 

Nicholas Arnesson, Bishop, 358- 
362, 365, 366, 374, 3S0, 386, 
388, 390, 393, 407, 411, 413, 
414 

Nicholas Breakspeare, Cardinal, 
320, 321 

Nicholas, Church of St., 294 

Nicholas Simonsson, 322, 324 

Nid River, 140 

Nidarholm, 308 

Nidaros, 148, 156, 189, 192,207, 
213, 215, 227, 232, 253, 260, 
262, 274, 284, 286, 294, 311, 
320, 324, 334, 338, 341, 345, 
347, 354, 361, 362, 366, 368, 
369, 381, 384, 387, 3S9, 390, 
392, 400, 404, 413, 416, 422, 
424, 426 

Nidhogger, 16, 18 

Niflheim, 16, 18 

Nils Henriksson, 485 

Nimwegen, 36 

Nis-aa, 259-266 



550 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Njaal, 158 

Njord, 21, 22, 23 

Noatun, 21 

Nordfjord, 339 

Nordhordland, 309 

Nordland, 363 

Nordmore, 96, 193, 287, 366 

Nordness, 346 

Nordraak, Richard, 538 

Norefjord, 348, 349 

Normandy, 64 

Normans, 12 

Norns, 18 

Northampton, 225 

North Cape, 411, 493, 531 

North Sea, 184, 258, 336 

Northumberland, 41, 80, 81, 137, 

268, 269 
Nortmannia, 31 
Norway's Libn, 527 
Norway's Welfare, Society for, 

514 

Nyborg, 498 
Nykoping, 459 



Odd, 22 

Oder, 120 

Odin, 13, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 
23, 45, 46, 84, 118, 123, 128, 
144, 150, 205, 207 

Oelve Nuva, 57, 59 

Oelve of Egge, 207 

Oerebro, 513 

O&YQ-thing, 140, 229, 230, 246, 
253, 322, 323, 334, 346, 380, 
388, 395, 396, 400, 423 

Offa, 41 

Ofrestad, 108, 109 

Oieren, Lake, 329 

Olaf, son of Harold the Fair- 
haired, 76 

Olaf, Chief of the Oyeskeggs, 

355 

Olaf of Dal, 297 

Olaf Engelbrektsson, Archbish- 
op, 488 

Olaf K varan, 137 

Olaf Magnusson, 291, 296, 301 

Olaf Nilsson, Sir, 479, 480 



Olaf the Quiet, 268, 272-285, 
293, 294 

Olaf the Saint, 49, 179, 182-224, 
227-232, 248, 252, 255, 261, 
267, 275, 278, 282, 293, 294, 
318, 327, 357, 396, 400, 423, 
428 

Olaf the Swede, 152, 163, 166, 
173, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197 

Olaf Tryggvesson, 108, 130-174, 
177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 
187, 188, 189, 195, 198, 205, 
206, 218, 228, 318, 446 

Olaf the Unlucky, 329,332 

Olaf the White, 40 

Olaf the Woodcutter, 46, 57 

Olaf the Young, 461, 466 

Oldenborg, 475, 476, 478, 487, 

494 

Ole the Russian, 136 

Olga, 136, 137, 142 

Oplands, 88, 174, 188, 190, 199, 

210, 267, 268, 285, 287, 329, 

370, 393, 400, 413, 416, 422, 

424, 445 
Ordinance, the, 489, 494 
Orient, the, 242 
Orkdale, 54, 189 
Orkhaugen, 279 
Orkneys, 40, 43, 63, 69, 88, 113, 

114, 127, 176, 233, 268, 272, 

279, 288, 289, 308, 355, 394, 

430, 432, 457, 481 
Orm Jonsson, 437 
Orm King's-Brother, 346, 349 
Orm Lyrgja, 129 
Oscar I., 528-530 
Oscar II,, 531-538 
Oslo, 256, 306, 312, 320, 322, 

323, 359, 361, 369, 370, 381, 

383, 390, 411, 413, 414, 425, 

426, 456, 459, 492 
Ottar Birting, 302, 303, 314, 

316 
Otto I., Emperor of Germany, 

115 
Otto II., Emperor of Germany, 

> 115 

Oxus, the, I 

Oyeskeggs, 355, 356, 357, 360 



INDEX. 



551 



Paderborn, 31 

Paris, 36, 513, 520, 538 

Paul, Bishop of Hamar, 420, 421 

Paul, Earl of the Orkneys, 288 

Persia, 2 

Peter III., Emperor of Russia, 

508 
Peter Kolbjornsson, 503 
Peter of Husastad, 411 
Peter Skulesson, 423 
Peter, St., 427 

Peter Steyper, 377, 381, 382, 388 
Philip, Don, 430 
Philip Simonsson, 386, 390, 393, 

400, 401 
Piraeus, 241 
Poland, 498, 502 
Pomerania, 163, 473, 513 
Pontecorvo, 513 
Prestebakke, 512 
Protestantism, 487, 495 
Prussia, 136, 163 
Pultawa, 501 



R 



Rafnista race, 56 

Raft Sund, 331 

Ragnar, a viking, 36 

Ragnar Lodbrok, 34, 198, 214, 
231, 236 

Ragnfred Eriksson, 113 

Ragnhild, queen of Harold the 
Fairhaired, 68 

Ragnhild, queen of Half dan the 
Swarthy, 47, 48 

Ragnhild, daughter of Magnus 
the Good, 265, 266, 267 

Ragnvald, Earl of More, 56, 59, 
64, 69 

Ragnvald, son of Erik Blood- 
Axe, 80 

Ragnvald Rettilbeine, 68, 71 

Ragnvald, Earl of Vestergotland, 

195 
Ran, 23 
Ranafylke, 317 
Randsfjord, 51, 108 



Ranrike, 57, 173, 284 

Ratibor, 310 

Raud the Strong, 156, 157, 162 

Raumarike, 46, 51, 173, 199, 210 

Raumsdale, 193 

Reas, 135 

Ree, 327,, 334, 338, 433 

Reformation, the, 486 

Reidar Grjotgardsson, 313 

Reidar Messenger, 360, 361, 375, 
376, 380 

Reidulf, a Birchleg, 389 

Rein, 416 

Reinald, Bishop, 308 

Revolution, the French, 509, 524 

Revolution, the July, 527 

Reykjaholt, 436, 440 

Rhine, The, 37 

Ribbungs, 407, 408, 412-416 

Richard the Fearless, Duke of 
Normandy, 65 

Richard the Good, Duke of Nor- 
mandy, 65 

Rimul, 131, 140 

Ring, King, 188 

Ringeness, 190, 199 

Ringerike, 47, 51, 183, 186, 199, 

244, 503 
Robert Bruce, 456 
Robert Guiscard, 292 
Robert the Magnificent, Duke of 

Normandy, 65 
Robin Hood, 341 
Roe, Bishop, 335, 380 
Rorek, King, 188, 199, 201, 202, 

206 
Rorek, Viking, 36 
Rogaland, 174, 324 
Roger, Duke, 292 
Rolf the Walker, see Rollo 
Rollaug, King in Naumdale, 54 
Rollo, Duke of Normandy, 56, 

64, 65 
Rome, I, 31, 34, 36, 171, 214, 

308, 359, 421, 422, 438 
Roskilde, 498 
Rostock, 469 
Rother, King, 242 
Rouen, 36 
Rousseau, 508 



552 



THE STORY OF NORWA V. 



Riigen, 163 

Russia, I, 134-137, 142, 192, 217, 
218, 229, 232, 239, 240, 277, 
501, 502, 508, 509, 510, 512, 
513, 514, 515, 530 

Rydjokel, 329 

Ryfylke, 121 



S 



vSaemund Jonsson, 436, 440 

Saemund the Learned, 434 

Salto Sound, 346^, 361 

Sandness, 61 

Saracens, 240, 318 

Sarpen, 194, 

Sarpsborg, 194, 197, 213, 391, 492 

Sars, Prof., 538 

Sars, J. E. Prof., 538 

Saudung Sound, 185 

Saurbygd, 337 

Saxons, 31, 42, 146, 236 

Scandinavia, 470 

Schiller, Friedrich, 418 

Sciences, Academy of, 508 

Scotland, 40, 43, 80, 113, 114, 
137, 268, 285, 287, 314, 431, 
442, 443, 452, 456, 480 

Seeland, 244, 248, 510 

Sehested, Hannibal, 477, 496 

Seine, The, 36 

Sekken, 324 

Selmer, Clir. August, Prime Min- 
ister, 532, 534 

Selven, 71 

Serpent, The, 157 

Shetland Islands, 43, 176, 355, 
430, 442, 481 

Short-Serpent, The, 162, 165 

Sicily, 240, 241 

Side-Hall, 238 

Sidon, 293, 299 

Sif, 21 

Sigar of Brabant, 405 

Sigfrid, King of Nortmannia, 31 

Sigfrid Haroldsson, 60, 76 

Sighvat Scald 230, 234, 260, 261, 
262 

Sighvat Sturlasson, 436, 440 

Sigmund Brestesson, 158 



Sigrid the Haughty, 152, 154, 161 

163, 169, 182 

Sigrid, daughter of Earl Sweyn, 

179 
Sigrid, sister of Thore Hund, 

212 
Sigrid, wife of Ivar of Fljod, 

295 
Sigrid, wife of Haldor Brynjulfs- 

son, 320 
Sigtrygg, King in Waterford, 40 
Sigurd, Bishop, 147, 157, 208, 

211, 220 
Sigurd of Haalogaland, 155 
Sigurd Borgarklett, 362, 364 
Sigurd the Crusader, 289, 29 1~ 

305, 309, 310, 313, 318, 323, 

329, 332, 427 
Sigurd, Earl of Hlade, 87, 90, 93, 

95, 98, 102, 105, 106 
Sigurd Eriksson, 134, 135 
Sigurd Haakonsson, 121 
Sigurd Hjort, 47, 48 
Sigurd Jarlsson, 355-357, 360, 

362, 364, 365 
Sigurd Jonsson, 473, 478 
Sigurd Lavard, 370, 380, 385 
Sigurd Marcusfostre, 326 
Sigurd Mouth, 311-321, 326, 327, 

332, 334, 335, 336, 351, 382, 
.387, 388 
Sigurd, alleged son of Magnus 

Erlingsson, 355 
Sigurd Ranesson, 295, 296, 297 
Sigurd Ribbung, 407, 408, 410, 

412, 414 
Sigurd of Reyr, 323, 324, 326, 

327 
Sigurd Rise, 68 
Sigurd Sigurdsson, 307 
Sigurd Slembedegn, 308, 309, 

311-314 
Sigurd Sleva, 104, 11 1 
Sigurd Syr, 182, 183, 186-190, 

192, 199, 221, 240 
Sigurd Tavse, Archbishop, 421, 

422 
Sigurd Wool-String, 287 
Sigvalde, Earl, 120, 123, 163, 

164, 171 



INDEX. 



553 



Silgjord, 155 

Simeon of Durham, 42 

Simon Kaaresson, 354 

Simon Skaalp, 317, 322 

Sinclair, Colonel, 495, 518 

Siric, Archbishop of Canterbury, 

147 

Skaane, 214, 242, 259, 463, 466, 
468, 498, 502, 513, 530 

Skade, 21 

Skage Skoftesson, 119 

Skagen, 324 

Skara Stift, 464 

Skegge Aasbjornsson, see Iron- 
beard 

Skinfaxe, 17 

Skiringssal, 46, 5 i 

Skraellings, 181 

Skuld, 18 

Skule Baardsson, Duke, 284, 395- 
427, 432, 437, 438, 440 

Skule Tostigsson, 283 

Slavs, I, 237 

Sleipner, 20 

Sleswick, 31, 237, 257, 472, 495, 
530 

Slittungs, 401, 402, 404, 407 

Smaaland, 301 

Smaalenene, ii 

Snarfare, 62 

Snefrid, wife of Harold the Fair- 
haired, 67, 68, 71, 183 

Snorre Sturlasson, 13, 45, 49, 52, 
66, 72, 74, 160, 186, 254, 276, 
421, 433-441, 444 

Snorrelaug, 436 

Sondmore, 122, 193, 217, 324, 

411, 495 
Sogn, 1 19, 234 
Sognefjord, 179, 210, 348, 349, 

415 
Sognesund, 228 
Sognings, 348 
Solveig, 438 
Sonartorek, 85 
Sotoness, 95 

Sound, The, n8, 242, 453 
Stamford Bridge, 268, 269, 272, 

283, 287 
Stang, F., Prime-Minister, 534 



Stanger, 332 

Stavanger, 59, 321, 358, 359 

Steen Sture the Elder, 480, 481, 

482 
Steen Sture the Younger, 482, 

483, 485 
Steinker, 189 

Steinkii, King of Sweden, 267 
Stenbock, Magnus, 502 
Stig, Marshal, 454 
Stiklestad, 212, 221, 227, 232, 

235,* 240, 255 
Stockholm, 464, 469, 480, 484, 

485, 532 
Storm, Prof.Gustav, 538 
Storthing, 521-534 
Strand, 121, 183 
Strindso, 369 
Struensee, 508, 509 
Stub, Rev. Kjeld, 496 
Stuf Katsson, 254 
Sturia Sighvatsson, 421, 438, 

440 
Sturia Thordsson, father of 

Snorre Sturlasson, 434 
vSturla Thordsson, nephew of 

Snorre Sturlasson, 45, 440, 442 
Sturlungs, The, 433-441, 443 
Styrbjorn, 214 
Styrkaar Stallare, 270, 271 
Supreme Court, 522 
Surtur, 16 
Sussex, 138 
Suttung, 20 
Svang, 408 
Svanhild, daughter of Earl Ey- 

stein, 76 
Svante Nilsson Sture, 482 
Sverdrup, Prof, 516, 518 
Sverdrup, John, Prime-Minister, 

534 
Sverke, King of Sweden, 368 
Sverre Sigurdsson, 195, 333-379, 

382, 385, 386, 388, 391, 393, 

396, 404, 407, 423, 432, 446, 

450 
Svolder, 157, 163, 173, 178, 193 
Sweyn, a pretender, 287 
Sweyn Alfifasson, 225-229, 233, 

287, 292 



554 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Sweyn Estridsson, 236, 237, 244, 

245, 247, 248, 250, 252, 257, 

258, 259, 265, 266, 267, 268, 

273, 274, 276 
Sweyn Forkbeard, 116, 118, iig, 

138, 139, 154, 161-166, 168, 

173, 177, 214 
Sweyn Haakonsson, Earl, 119, 

121, 122, 173-181, 186, 187, 

189, igo-193 
Sweyn, Rorek's servant, 201 



Tacitus, 25 

Taylor, Bayard, 491 

Tegelsmora, 223 

Telemark, 338, 340 

Thamb, 162 

Thames, The, 42 

Thangbrand the priest, 146, T47, 

■ 158, 159 
Thirty Years' War, 495 
Thjostulf Aalesson, 311, 312 
Thor, 20, 21, 22, 128, 144, 151, 

204, 208, 209, 224 
Thora, wife of Earl Haakon, 119 
Thora, wife of Harold Hard- 

Iluler, 255 
Thora Guttorm's daughter, 309 
Thora Moster-Pole, 72 
Thora of Rimul, 130 
Thora Saxe's daughter, 308 
Thoralf Lousy-Beard, 108, 109, 

135 
Thorbjorn Hornklove, 59 
Thord Sturlasson, 436 
Thore, Archbishop, 393, 395 
Thore Herse, 77, 78 
Thore Hjort, 148, 154, 156 
Thore Hund, 211, 212, 222, 233 
Thore Klakka, 139, 140 
Thore Sel, 21 1 
Thore of Steig, 245, 262, 274, 

286, 287 
Thorfinn Karlsevne, 181 
Thorgeir, brother-in-law of Olaf 

Tryggvesson, 161, 162 
Thorgerd, Valkyria, 123 
Thorghaettan, 363 



Thorgils Thoralfsson, 135 
Thorgils, 224, 227 
Thorgisl, 38, 39, 40 
Thorgny the Lawman, 195, 196 
Thorkell Dyrdill, 164, 165 
Thorkell Leira, 124, 125, 126 
Thorleif, Bishop, 480 
Thormod Kolbruna-Scald, 221, 

222 
Thorolf, Bald Grim's son, 77, 78, 

79 
Thorolf, Kveld-Ulf's son, 57-60 
Thorsberg, 362 
Thorstein, a peasant, 109 
Thorstein Kugad, 362, 366 
Thorstein, son of Side-Hall, 238, 

239 

Thorvald Eriksson, 181 

Thrond the Priest, 391 

Thrudvang, 20 

Thyra, queen of Olaf Tryggves- 
son, 154, 161, 168, 171, 214 

Tiber, 34 

Tidemand, Adolf, 538 

Tiding-Skofte, 119 

Tilly, General, 495 

Tilsit, treaty of, 510, 512 

Toke, a peasant, 246 

Tordenskjold, 503, 504 

Torstenson, General, 496 

Tostig Godwineson, Earl, 269, 
270, 283 

Tours, 34 

Toverud, 512 

Trangen, 512 

Travendal, 501 

Trondelag, 54, 76, 80, 87, 88, 
102, 106, 130, 140, 148, 177, 
178, 189, 193, 220, 234, 255, 
285, 287, 324, 327, 340, 352, 
358, 366, 368, 398, 445 

Tronders, 94, 95, 106, 107, 148, 
149, 189, 193, 207, 227, 228, 
232, 265, 285, 286, 311, 327, 
328, 340, 368, 423, 498 

Trollhaettan, 288 

Tromso, 429 

Tryggve Olafsson, son of Olaf 
Haroldsson, 76, 88, 94, 95, 
102, 105, 107, 108, 144 



INDEX. 



555 



Tryggve Olafsson, son of Olaf 

Tryggvesson, 228 
Tunsberg, 20 r, 306, 324, 327, 

334, 354, 375, 376, 380, 388, 

390, 413, 449 
Tunsberghus, 481 
Turf-Einar, 69 
Turges, 38 
Turks, 2, 500 
Tyr, 21 
Tyrker, 180 



U 



Ueland, Ole Gabriel, 528 

Ugerup, Erik, 485 

Ulf Thorgilsson, Earl, 214, 215, 

236 
Ulf Uspaksson, 255 
Uller, 22 
Ulster, 289 
Unas, 334, 335 
University of Norway, 514 
Upland, 223, 
Upsala, 45, 195 
Urd, 18 

Urokja Snorresson, 440 
Utgard, 17 



V 



Vaagen, 294, 299 

Vaerdalen, 220, 221, 222, 232 

Vagn Aakesson, 122-127 

Valdalen, 217 

Valdemar Atterdag, 462, 463 

Valdemar Birgersson, King of 

Sweden, 449 
Valdemar, the Great, 323, 327- 

330, 345 
Valdemar Magnusson, Duke, 

456, 458, 459 
Valdemar the Victorious, 386, 

387, 410, 417, 418 
Valders, 52, 127 
Valfather, 19 
Valhalla, 19, 84, lor, 204 
Valkendorf, Christopher, 490 
Valkyries 19, 84, 123, 204 
Vandals, 136 



Vanir, 14, 21 

Varangians, 240, 241 

Varbeigs, 354, 355, 423, 425 

Ve, 13, 16 

Vebjorn, 256 

Venice, 241 

Venetian, 500 

Venus, 22 

Verdande, 18 

Vermeland, 57, 58, 267, 332, 337, 

412, 464 
Versailles, 501 
Vesteraalen, 331 
Vestergotland, 195, 267, 312, 464, 

468, 481 
Vestfjord, 331 

Vestfold, 46, 51, 57, 76, 190, 412 
Vestgoths, 268 
Viborg, 485 

Viborg-/////?^, 231, 237, 252 
Vidar, 22 
Vidrar, 84 
Vige, 156 
Vikar, Chief of the Varbeigs, 

354, 423 

Viken, 57, 64, 76, 88, 94, 102, 
105, 107, no, 118, 119, 143, 
144, 147, 160, 213, 245, 256, 
266, 273, 285, 307, 319, 323, 
324, 327, 330, 332, 337, 345, 
351, 356, 361, 370, 388, 391, 
393, 400, 407, 408, 410, 411, 
422, 425, 445, 498 

Vile, 13, 16 

Vingulmark, 57, 173 

Vinland, 180, 181 

Vinold, Archbishop, 467 

Virgin Mary, The, 144, 146, 396 

Visby, 463 

Vitalie Brethren, 469, 473 

Vladimir, 134, 136, 137, 142 

Voltaire, 508 

Vornedskab, 475 

Vors, in 

W 

Wallenstein, 418 

Waterford, 40 

Wedel-Jarlsberg, Count, 518, 527 



556 



THE STORY OF NORWAY. 



Welhaven, J. S., 536 
Wendland, 136, 142, 161, 162, 

163, 168, 237, 330 
Wends, 236, 237, 310, 312 
Wener, Lake, 288 
Wergeland, Henrik, 526, 531, 

536 
Wergeland, Rev. Nicolai, 518 
Wessex, 41 
Widukind, 31 
William the Conqueror, 12, 56, 

65, 272, 277, 283 
William Longsword, 65 
William of Sabina, Cardinal, 

428 



Wismar, 469 
Wollin, 120 



Ygdrasil, 18 

Ymer, 16, 17 

Ynglings, 31, 40, 45, 57, 62 

Yngve, 45 

York, 8t, 268 

Yotun, 16, 17, 21, 23 

Yotunheim, 17, 18, 21 



Zoe, Empress, 242 




The Story^of the Nations. 



Messrs. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS take pleasure in 
announcing that they have in course of pubHcation a 
series of graphic historical studies, intended to present to 
the young the stories of the different nations that have at- 
tained prominence in history. 

In the story form the current of each national life 
will be distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and note- 
worthy periods and episodes will be presented for the 
young reader in their philosophical relations to each 
other as well as to universal history. 

It will be the plan of the writers of the different 
volumes to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to 
bring them before the reader as they actually lived, 
labored, and struggled — as they studied and wrote, and 
as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, 
the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will 
not be overlooked, though these will be carefully dis- 
tinguished from the actual history, so far as the labors of 
the accepted historical authorities have resulted in defi- 
nite conclusions. 

It is proposed to have the series present the results 
of the latest investigations in the progressive department 
of historical research. Disputed points will, however, 
not be discussed, but, instead, the writers will present, in 
a simple, direct, and graphic style, the story of each land, 
utilizing also, to illuminate the narrative, the side lights 
that the poets and novelists have cast upon it. 

Possessing a knowledge of and sympathy with the 
youthful way of looking at such subjects, the writers will 
not offer annals, arid and unconnected, nor bare chrono- 
logical statements of events, however complete. They 
will not expect to include all details of minor importance ; 
but, on the contrary, will try to present pictures adapted 
to leave faithful impressions of the essential facts. 



The editors will endeavor to preserve a unity of 
design and execution that will enable the series to give 
to the reader a survey of the rise and progress, of the 
nations sufficient to form a sound basis for subsequent 
reading and study ; but it will not be attempted to cover 
in detail the entire ground of universal history. 

The subjects of the different volumes will be planned 
to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive 
epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will 
present in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in 
the great Story OF THE NATIONS; but it will, of course, 
not always prove practicable to issue the several volumes 
in their chronological order. 

The '' Stories " will be printed in good readable type, 
and in handsome i2mo form. They will be adequately 
illustrated and furnished with maps and indexes. They 
will be sold separately, at a price of about $1.50 each. 

The following is a partial list of the subjects thus far 
determined upon : 

THE STORY OF EGYPT. Prof. George Rawlinson. 
*CI-IALDEA. Z. Ragozin. 
*GREECE. Prof. James A. Harrison, 

Washington and Lee University. 
*R0ME. Arthur Oilman, 
*THE jews. Prof. James K. Hosmer, 

Washington University of St. Louis. 
CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church, 

University College, London. 
GAUL. 

BYZANTIUM. Charlton T. Lewis. 
THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley, 
the NORMANS. Sarah O. Jewett. 
PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin. 
SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale. 
GERMANY. S. Baring Gould. 
THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 
HOLLAND. Prof. C. E. Thorold Rogers. 
NORWAY. HjALMAR H. Boyesen. 
THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole. 
HUNGARY, Prof. A. Vambery. 
THE ITALIAN KINGDOM. W. L. Alden. 
* (The volumes starred are now ready.) 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
New York London 

27 AND 29 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 27 KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND 



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